Legalization and retail availability of recreational marijuana and adolescent use in schools.

Legalization of use and retail sales of recreational marijuana in U.S. states and the associated potential increase in access to marijuana and normalization of its use by adults could lead to increased use by adolescents. Studies have found that states with legal recreational marijuana have higher rates of adolescent use and frequency of use compared to states without legal use. We examined changes in student office discipline referrals (ODRs) for substance use offenses in Oregon middle and high schools before and after the legalization of recreational marijuana relative to comparison schools in other states. We found that rates of substance use related ODRs in middle schools increased by 0.14 per 100 students (30% of the mean) with legalization relative to comparison schools. This increase was moderated by the presence of a marijuana outlet within one mile of the school. We found no statistically discernible changes in high school ODRs. Marijuana use in adolescence has been linked to negative health and social consequences, including academic problems, mental health issues, and impaired driving. Potential adverse impact on adolescents and investments in school-based prevention programs could be important considerations for policymakers and public health officials when evaluating marijuana legalization.

An Efficacy Trial of Carescapes: Home-Based Child-Care Practices and Children's Social Outcomes.

This study reported findings from a longitudinal randomized controlled trial of Carescapes, a professional development program for home-based child-care providers in promoting children's social competence. Participants included 134 child-care providers and 310 children, ages 3-5 years, in Oregon. The Carescapes intervention group made significant improvements in observed caregiver responsiveness and monitoring, and showed decreased caregiver-reported child problem behavior and improved parent-reported peer relationships compared to the control group. Increased caregiver-reported cooperation skills were found for the intervention group at follow-up. No differences in condition were found for kindergarten teacher-reported social-behavioral, classroom, and academic skills. Moderation effects on children's behavior and peer relations were found for child age and exposure to the intervention child care.

What Constitutes High-Quality Implementation of SEL Programs? A Latent Class Analysis of Second Step® Implementation.

With the increased number of schools adopting social-emotional learning (SEL) programming, there is increased emphasis on the role of implementation in obtaining desired outcomes. Despite this, the current knowledge of the active ingredients of SEL programming is lacking, and there is a need to move from a focus on "whether" implementation matters to "what" aspects of implementation matter. To address this gap, the current study utilizes a latent class approach with data from year 1 of a randomized controlled trial of Second Step® (61 schools, 321 teachers, over 7300 students). Latent classes of implementation were identified, then used to predict student outcomes. Teachers reported on multiple dimensions of implementation (adherence, dosage, competency), as well as student outcomes. Observational data were also used to assess classroom behavior (academic engagement and disruptive behavior). Results suggest that a three-class model fits the data best, labeled as high-quality, low-engagement, and low-adherence classes. Only the low-engagement class showed significant associations with poorer outcomes, when compared to the high-quality class (not the low-adherence class). Findings are discussed in terms of implications for program development and implementation science more broadly.

Regression models and effect size measures for single case designs.

A regression modelling approach for the analysis of single case designs (SCDs) is described in this paper. The approach presented addresses two key issues in the analysis of SCDs. The first issue is that of serial dependence among the observations in SCDs. The second issue is that of an effect size measure appropriate for SCDs. As with traditional between-subjects experimental designs, effect size measures are critical in assessing the impact of interventions in SCDs. Although effect size measures when there is level change without trend are straightforward to obtain and have been well studied, the situation is different when there are changes in both level and trend. An effect size measure that combines changes in levels and slopes and that is comparable to the d-type effect size measure obtained in between-subjects designs is presented. Finally, an inferential procedure for assessing the effect of the intervention based on the effect size measure is provided and illustrated.

Examining differential effects of an equity-focused schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports approach on teachers' equity in school discipline.

Following a randomized controlled trial that showed effectiveness of an equity-centered positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) professional development intervention on student discipline in elementary schools, we studied the extent to which the intervention had differential effects on individual teachers' use of exclusionary discipline. Using the sample of teachers from the randomized controlled trial (n = 348), we assessed whether (a) changes in teacher use of office discipline referrals over the course of 2 school years and (b) intervention acceptability were moderated by teacher demographic characteristics (e.g., race/ethnicity, experience) or teacher attitudes (e.g., awareness of biases and commitment to equity). Results from multilevel models using two discipline outcomes (i.e., office discipline referrals issued to Black students and equity in office discipline referrals) did not show significant moderation effects for any demographic or attitude variables. Results of intervention acceptability found that teachers with pre-existing commitments to bias reduction found the intervention more acceptable, although means were consistently high across the sample. Findings indicate that the intervention was similarly effective on teacher discipline practices, regardless of teacher demographics or pre-existing attitudes, lending more support to the intervention's promise.

Social consequences of educational measures: A commentary.

This commentary discusses Messick's (1995) unified validity framework, which broadly characterizes the interpretation of test scores in terms of their social consequences. Scores and their interpretation can lead to unintended consequences when they capture only part of the specified construct or characteristics unrelated to the construct. The evaluation of construct underrepresentation and irrelevance requires careful investigation and rational argument about the construct and its theoretical basis, as well as any planned uses, contexts, scores, or samples. Developers also validate an assessment for specific purposes, and users share responsibility for validation for any novel use or interpretation of scores. This commentary also considers the consequences of decisions based on assessments and the consequences of local and national norms. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The cost-effectiveness of an English language curriculum for middle school English learners.

Best practice suggests that curricular decisions be made on the evidence base of the content and the contextual fit of the curriculum to the school setting, and with coaching to help teachers effectively use curricula. Messages from the federal government encourage school administrators and researchers to consider the costs of a program. The Middle School English Learner Project, an evaluation of the Direct Instruction Spoken English curriculum, provides the opportunity to document and analyze the cost-effectiveness (CE) of a high-quality implementation of one English language program. Results indicate that the majority of costs are associated with training and coaching, with potential economies of scale through training multiple teachers together. Importance of using CE analyses to inform decisions is discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Examining Interactions Across Instructional Tiers: Do Features of Tier 1 Predict Student Responsiveness to Tier 2 Mathematics Intervention?

High-quality Tier 1 instruction is frequently conceptualized as the "foundation" for other tiers of intervention within multitiered systems of support (MTSS) models. However, the vast majority of Tier 2 intervention studies do not account for Tier 1 variables when examining intervention effectiveness. The purpose of this study was to examine Tier 1 predictors, or "quality indicators," of differential responsiveness to Tier 2 mathematics intervention. Data were drawn from a large-scale data set where all teachers taught the Early Learning in Mathematics (Tier 1) core program across the academic year, and a subset of students were selected for the ROOTS (Tier 2) mathematics intervention. We examined the following Tier 1 variables: (a) classroom-level mathematics gains, (b) Tier 1 fidelity of implementation, (c) Tier 1 classroom management and instructional support, and (d) class size. Response to Tier 2 intervention was not significantly predicted by any of the Tier 1 variables examined; however, the pattern of Hedges' g effect sizes suggested that students with higher quality of Tier 1 instruction tended to benefit less from the Tier 2 ROOTS intervention. Results are discussed in the context of implications for research and practice.

Proficiency With Number Concepts and Operations: Replicating the Efficacy of a First-Grade Mathematics Intervention.

Conceptual replications are part and parcel of education science. Methodologically rigorous conceptual replication studies permit researchers to test and strengthen the generalizability of a study's initial findings. The current conceptual replication sought to replicate the efficacy of a small-group, first-grade mathematics intervention with 240 first-grade students with mathematics difficulties in a new geographical region. Participating students were randomized into one of three conditions: (a) 2:1 mathematics intervention group, (b) 5:1 mathematics intervention group, or (c) business-as-usual instruction. Relative to the original study, findings from the replication varied. When comparing the treatment groups to the control, results suggested positive effects on all outcome measures, including a follow-up assessment administered one year later. However, differences between the two treatment groups based on group size were not found in the mathematics outcome measures. Both groups also received commensurate levels of observed instructional interactions. Implications for unpacking contextual differences between original research and their replications as well as using future research to explore the quantity and quality of instructional interactions as ways to explain variation in findings of group size are discussed.

MAFbx, MuRF1, and the stress-activated protein kinases are upregulated in muscle cells during total knee arthroplasty.

Total knee arthroplasty (TKA) is the most common and a cost-effective surgical remediation for older adults with long-standing osteoarthritis. In parallel with the expanding population of older adults, the number of TKAs performed annually is projected to be 3.48 million by 2030. During this surgery, a tourniquet is used to stop blood flow to the operative leg. However, the molecular pathways that are affected by tourniquet use during TKA continue to be elucidated. We hypothesized that components of the catabolic FoxO3a (i.e., MuRF1, MAFbx, and Bnip3) pathway, as well as the cellular stress pathways [i.e., stress-activated protein kinase (SAPK)/JNK and MAPKs], are upregulated during TKA. The purpose of this study was to measure changes in transcripts and proteins involved in muscle cell catabolic and stress-activated pathways. We obtained muscle biopsies from subjects, 70 ± 1.3 yr, during TKA, from the vastus lateralis at baseline (before tourniquet inflation), during maximal ischemia (just before tourniquet release), and during reperfusion. Total tourniquet time was 43 ± 2 min and reperfusion time was 16 ± 1. Significant increases in FoxO3a downstream targets, MAFbx and MuRF1, were present for mRNA levels during ischemia (MAFbx, P = 0.04; MuRF1, P = 0.04), and protein expression during ischemia (MAFbx, P = 0.002; MuRF1, P = 0.001) and reperfusion (MuRF1, P = 0.002). Additionally, stress-activated JNK gene expression (P = 0.01) and protein were elevated during ischemia (P = 0.001). The results of this study support our hypothesis that protein degradation pathways are stimulated during TKA. Muscle protein catabolism is likely to play a role in the rapid loss of muscle volume measured within 2 wk of this surgery.

Proteins regulating cap-dependent translation are downregulated during total knee arthroplasty.

Total knee arthroplasty (TKA) utilizes a tourniquet to reduce blood loss, maintain a clear surgical "bloodless" field, and to ensure proper bone-implant cementing. In 2007, over 600,000 TKAs were performed in the United States, and this number is projected to increase to 3.48 million procedures performed annually by 2030. The acute effects of tourniquet-induced ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) on human skeletal muscle cells are poorly understood and require critical investigation, as muscle atrophy following this surgery is rapid and represents the most significant clinical barrier to long-term normalization of physical function. To determine the acute effects of I/R on skeletal muscle cells, biopsies were obtained at baseline, maximal ischemia (prior to tourniquet release), and reperfusion (following tourniquet release). Quadriceps volume was determined before and 2 wk post-TKA by MRI. We measured a 36% decrease in phosphorylation of Akt Ser(473) during ischemia and 37% during reperfusion (P < 0.05). 4E-BP1 Thr(37/46) phosphorylation decreased 29% during ischemia and 22% during reperfusion (P < 0.05). eEF2 Thr(56) phosphorylation increased 25% during ischemia and 43% during reperfusion (P < 0.05). Quadriceps volume decreased 12% in the TKA leg (P < 0.05) and tended to decrease (6%) in the contralateral leg (P = 0.1). These data suggest cap-dependent translation initiation, and elongation may be inhibited during and after TKA surgery. We propose that cap-dependent translational events occurring during surgery may precipitate postoperative changes in muscle cells that contribute to the etiology of muscle atrophy following TKA.

Diagnostic accuracy of Spanish and English screeners with Spanish and English criterion measures for bilingual students in Grades 1 and 2.

The purpose of this study was to examine the diagnostic accuracy of English and Spanish language screeners when predicting reading comprehension outcomes in both languages at the end of Grade 1 and Grade 2. Participants were 1221 Latino/a bilingual students in Grade 1 and 1004 in Grade 2 who were attending bilingual programs in the Pacific Northwest and in Texas. We used ROC curve analyses to calculate the area under the curve (AUC; A) for each measure. The decision thresholds we selected resulted in 71% of all comparisons having accuracy of at least 0.75. Letter naming, decoding, and oral reading fluency in Spanish were accurate in predicting reading risk on criterion measures in Spanish and in English in Grades 1 and 2 (A value of 0.75 or above). English screeners, however, only predicted reading risk on the English criterion measure, but not on the Spanish criterion measure, with a few exceptions. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Examining links between parental monitoring and school engagement among middle school students with and without elevated behavior ratings.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether seventh-grade positive peer affiliation and conduct problems mediated the relationship between sixth-grade parental monitoring of behavior and eighth-grade school participation and grades among students with elevated behavior ratings (EBR; n = 821) and students with unelevated behavior ratings (UBR; n = 3,779). Conduct problems and peer affiliation mediated the relationship between parental monitoring and school participation as well as grades in the overall sample (n = 4,600). A multiple-group mediation model suggested that these effects did not significantly differ across students with EBR and UBR, though the mediation estimates were smaller in magnitude and not statistically significant among students with EBR. Implications for the role of parental monitoring as an intervention target within a multitiered system of support for social and behavioral skills in middle school, as well as limitations and future directions are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Measuring Explicit Instruction Using Classroom Observations of Student-Teacher Interactions (COSTI).

This article describes the development and technical adequacy of the Classroom Observations of Student Teacher Interactions (COSTI) instrument, a tool for measuring the frequency and rate of explicit instructional interactions, such as those used in Direct Instruction curricula, for teaching children basic reading and math skills. COSTI was originally developed to provide teachers with coaching feedback to improve their explicit reading instructional practices, and has been shown in multiple studies to be a reliable and valid predictor of student gains in beginning reading and math skills. This article discusses potential uses of the instrument for training and coaching across curricula with varying instructional design features, and lays out a future research agenda to further improve COSTI and related observation tools for studying explicit instructional practices and their contribution to student learning.

Using Direct Observation to Document "Practice-Based Evidence" of Evidence-Based Mathematics Instruction.

Implementation of evidence-based practices (EBPs) is paramount to students' development of mathematics proficiency. This study investigated "practice-based evidence" of interventionists' actual use of explicit mathematics instruction, a well-established EBP. Specifically, this study analyzed direct observation data collected in a federally funded efficacy trial involving a Tier 2 first-grade mathematics intervention to examine whether the quantity and quality of explicit mathematics instruction was associated with the mathematics outcomes of 470 first-grade students with or at risk for mathematics learning disabilities. Associations between group-level pretreatment skill levels and the quality and quantity of explicit mathematics instructional practices used in the intervention were also explored. Findings suggested significant associations between positive gains in student mathematics outcomes and (a) lower rates of incorrectly answered mathematics-focused questions, and (b) the rate in which interventionists delivered group-level practice opportunities and offered academic feedback. Significant associations were also found between initial student mathematics performance and rates of student errors and the quality of explicit instruction. Implications for using direct observation to document enacted EBPs are discussed.

Kindergarteners at Risk for Severe Mathematics Difficulties: Investigating Tipping Points of Core Mathematics Instruction.

A concerning number of students enter kindergarten facing an intractable variation of mathematics difficulties (MD). This study investigated the impact of an explicit, core kindergarten mathematics program on the mathematical outcomes of kindergartners who demonstrated risk for severe MD at kindergarten entry and examined whether these students improved from a category of high MD risk (i.e., <10th percentile) to a lower risk of MD (i.e., norm-referenced performance at or above the 10th, 20th, 30th, and 40th percentiles) between the fall and spring of kindergarten. Differential response to the program based on the classroom-level proportion of students with severe MD was also explored. A total of 795 kindergarteners with severe MD from 122 classrooms were included in the analyses. Results suggested students with severe MD in treatment classrooms improved from fall to spring at a greater rate than their control peers. Treatment students also demonstrated higher rates of improvement from below the 10th percentile to a performance at or above the 20th, 30th, and 40th percentiles across the school year. No evidence of differential efficacy of the program by the classroom-level proportion of students with severe MD was found. Implications for using explicit mathematics programs to thwart the onset of severe MD among academically vulnerable students are discussed.

Equity-focused PBIS approach reduces racial inequities in school discipline: A randomized controlled trial.

We assessed the effects of a whole-school equity intervention implemented within a school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) framework on racial inequities in school discipline in eight elementary schools with inequitable referrals for Black students. The intervention involved assessing patterns of racial disparities in school discipline decisions and providing professional development on adapting school-wide behavior systems to improve cultural responsiveness through concrete strategies targeting the patterns. After consent and matching on existing levels of racial inequities, half of the schools were randomly assigned to receive the intervention. Analyses showed that schools receiving the intervention had significant decreases in racial disparities in school discipline and rates of office discipline referrals (ODRs) for Black students, while control schools had minimal change. Results are discussed in terms of improving equity in school discipline within multitiered systems of support. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Two-year impact of a universal social-emotional learning curriculum: Group differences from developmentally sensitive trends over time.

This study examined the impact of a commonly adopted elementary universal social-emotional learning program, Second Step, on student social-emotional and academic outcomes following 2 years of implementation. The cluster-randomized wait-list control trial included 61 schools, 321 teachers, and 8,941 early elementary students across 2 states, with assessments collected in the fall and spring across 2 years. We developed 8 theoretically derived growth patterns that potentially described the intervention and counterfactual conditions, and then selected the model with the greatest support from the data for each outcome with an information-theoretic approach. Differences between intervention and control groups were tested within the best-fitting model in order to reduce misspecification and maximize generalizability. Most measures fit a pattern in which students improved only during instructional time in school and not during the summer; the data rarely fit the commonly assumed linear growth model. Improvements related to Second Step were observed for emotional symptoms, hyperactivity, skills for learning, and emotion management, but these were modified by either pretest levels or student sex. Condition effects for peer problems were larger for students with initially low ratings and for boys. Boys also showed improvements in conduct problems. Study impacts generally did not depend upon student grade level. The results confirmed the importance of identifying developmentally sensitive trajectories and suggested important implications for Second Step implementation in early elementary grades. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Examining the Impact of Group Size on the Treatment Intensity of a Tier 2 Mathematics Intervention Within a Systematic Framework of Replication.

Group size and treatment intensity are understudied topics in mathematics intervention research. This study examined whether the treatment intensity and overall intervention effects of an empirically validated Tier 2 mathematics intervention varied between intervention groups with 2:1 and 5:1 student-teacher ratios. Student practice opportunities and the quality of explicit instruction served as treatment intensity metrics. A total of 465 kindergarten students with mathematics difficulties from 136 intervention groups participated. Results suggested comparable performances between the 2:1 and 5:1 intervention groups on six outcome measures. Observation data indicated that student practice differed by group size. Students in the 5:1 groups received more opportunities to practice with their peers, while students in the 2:1 groups participated in more frequent and higher quality individualized practice opportunities. Implications in terms of delivering Tier 2 interventions in small-group formats and engaging at-risk learners in meaningful practice opportunities are discussed.

Student Practice Opportunities in Core Mathematics Instruction: Exploring for a Goldilocks Effect for Kindergartners With Mathematics Difficulties.

Opportunities for practice play a critical role in learning complex behaviors. In the context of explicit mathematics instruction, practice facilitates systematic opportunities for students with mathematics difficulties (MD) to learn new mathematics content and apply such knowledge and skills to novel mathematics problems. This study explored whether there is an optimal amount of student practice that teachers should provide in core mathematics instruction to maximize the mathematics achievement of kindergarten students with MD, a so called "Goldilocks effect," as opposed to simply "more is better." Results from observation data collected in a large-scale efficacy trial supported the latter rather than the former. Specifically, we found that three individual practice opportunities for every explicit teacher demonstration of mathematical content was associated with increased mathematics achievement for students with MD relative to fewer practice opportunities. Implications for facilitating frequent student practice opportunities during core mathematics instruction and designing professional development for teachers who work with students with MD are discussed.