Interaction of the tumor suppressor SMAD4 and WNT signaling in progression to oral squamous cell carcinoma.

SMAD4 is a tumor suppressor mutated or silenced in multiple cancers, including oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Human clinical samples and cell lines, mouse models and organoid culture were used to investigate the role that SMAD4 plays in progression from benign disease to invasive OSCC. Human OSCC lost detectable SMAD4 protein within tumor epithelium in 24% of cases, and this loss correlated with worse progression-free survival independent of other major clinical and pathological features. A mouse model engineered for KrasG12D expression in the adult oral epithelium induced benign papillomas, however the combination of KrasG12D with loss of epithelial Smad4 expression resulted in rapid development of invasive carcinoma with features of human OSCC. Examination of regulatory pathways in 3D organoid cultures of SMAD4+ and SMAD4- mouse tumors with Kras mutation found that either loss of SMAD4 or inhibition of TGFß signaling upregulated the WNT pathway and altered the extracellular matrix. The gene signature of the mouse tumor organoids lacking SMAD4 was highly similar to the gene signature of human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. In summary, this work has uncovered novel mechanisms by which SMAD4 acts as a tumor suppressor in OSCC. © 2024 The Author(s). The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

SMAD4 Suppresses Colitis-associated Carcinoma Through Inhibition of CCL20/CCR6-mediated Inflammation.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: We previously reported that colon epithelial cell silencing of Smad4 increased epithelial expression of inflammatory genes, including the chemokine c-c motif chemokine ligand 20 (CCL20), and increased susceptibility to colitis-associated cancer. Here, we examine the role of the chemokine/receptor pair CCL20/c-c motif chemokine receptor 6 (CCR6) in mediating colitis-associated colon carcinogenesis induced by SMAD4 loss. METHODS: In silico analysis of SMAD4, CCL20, and CCR6 messenger RNA expression was performed on published transcriptomic data from human ulcerative colitis (UC), and colon and rectal cancer samples. Immunohistochemistry for CCL20 and CCR6 was performed on human tissue microarrays comprising human UC-associated cancer specimens, Mice with conditional, epithelial-specific Smad4 loss with and without germline deletion of the Ccr6 gene were subjected to colitis and followed for up to 3 months. Tumors were quantified histologically, and immune cell populations were analyzed by flow cytometry and immunostaining. RESULTS: In human UC-associated cancers, loss of epithelial SMAD4 was associated with increased CCL20 expression and CCR6+ cells. SMAD4 loss in mouse colon epithelium led to enlarged gut-associated lymphoid tissues and recruitment of immune cells to the mouse colon epithelium and stroma, particularly T regulatory, Th17, and dendritic cells. Loss of CCR6 abrogated these immune responses and significantly reduced the incidence of colitis-associated tumors observed with loss of SMAD4 alone. CONCLUSIONS: Regulation of mucosal inflammation is central to SMAD4 tumor suppressor function in the colon. A key downstream node in this regulation is suppression of epithelial CCL20 signaling to CCR6 in immune cells. Loss of SMAD4 in the colon epithelium increases CCL20 expression and chemoattraction of CCR6+ immune cells, contributing to greater susceptibility to colon cancer.

Colon epithelial cell TGFß signaling modulates the expression of tight junction proteins and barrier function in mice.

Defective barrier function is a predisposing factor in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and colitis-associated cancer (CAC). Although TGFß signaling defects have been associated with IBD and CAC, few studies have examined the relationship between TGFß and intestinal barrier function. Here, we examine the role of TGFß signaling via SMAD4 in modulation of colon barrier function. The Smad4 gene was conditionally deleted in the intestines of adult mice and intestinal permeability assessed using an in vivo 4 kDa FITC-Dextran (FD4) permeability assay. Mouse colon was isolated for gene expression (RNA-sequencing), Western blot, and immunofluorescence analysis. In vitro colon organoid culture was utilized to assess junction-related gene expression by qPCR and transepithelial resistance (TER). In silico analyses of human IBD and colon cancer databases were performed. Mice lacking intestinal expression of Smad4 demonstrate increased colonic permeability to FD4 without gross mucosal damage. mRNA/protein expression analyses demonstrate significant increases in Cldn2/Claudin 2 and Cldn8/Claudin 8, and decreases in Cldn3, Cldn4, and Cldn7/Claudin 7 with intestinal SMAD4 loss in vivo without changes in Claudin protein localization. TGFß1/BMP2 treatment of polarized SMAD4+ colonoids increases TER. Cldn2, Cldn4, Cldn7, and Cldn8 are regulated by canonical TGFß signaling, and TGFß-dependent regulation of these genes is dependent on nascent RNA transcription (Cldn2, Cldn4, Cldn8) but not nascent protein translation (Cldn4, Cldn8). Human IBD/colon cancer specimens demonstrate decreased SMAD4, CLDN4, CLDN7, and CLDN8 and increased CLDN2 compared with healthy controls. Canonical TGFß signaling modulates the expression of tight junction proteins and barrier function in mouse colon.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We demonstrate that canonical TGFß family signaling modulates the expression of critical tight junction proteins in colon epithelial cells, and that expression of these tight junction proteins is associated with maintenance of colon epithelial barrier function in mice.

Circulating transforming growth factor-beta-1 and breast cancer prognosis: results from the Shanghai Breast Cancer Study.

INTRODUCTION: Studies investigating the prognostic effect of circulating TGF-beta-1 in breast cancer have given inconsistent findings. The purpose of this study is to evaluate whether circulating transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-beta-1) is associated with overall and disease-free survival in a cohort of recently diagnosed breast cancer patients. METHODS: We measured TGF-beta-1 levels in plasma samples of breast cancer patients in the Shanghai Breast Cancer Study, a population-based case-control study. We evaluated the relationship between TGF-beta-1 levels and overall and disease-free survival. The median follow up time was 7.2 years. RESULTS: We observed that, compared with the patients with the lowest quartile of plasma TGF-beta-1, patients with the highest quartile of plasma TGF-beta-1 had significantly worse overall survival with hazards ratio (HR) = 2.78, with 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.34-5.79 and disease-free survival with HR = 2.49, 95% CI: 1.15-5.41, while the patients with the second and third quartiles of plasma TGF-beta-1 did not have significantly different overall and disease-free breast cancer survival. The shape of association between plasma TGF-beta-1 levels and breast cancer survival appears to be non-linear. Stratified analysis by stage of disease did not appreciably change the association pattern. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that the relationship between circulating levels of TGF-beta-1 and prognosis in breast cancer is complex and non-linear. High levels of TGF-beta-1 are associated with worse survival independent of stage of disease.

Epithelial Smad4 Deletion Up-Regulates Inflammation and Promotes Inflammation-Associated Cancer.

Background & Aims: Chronic inflammation is a predisposing condition for colorectal cancer. Many studies to date have focused on proinflammatory signaling pathways in the colon. Understanding the mechanisms that suppress inflammation, particularly in epithelial cells, is critical for developing therapeutic interventions. Here, we explored the roles of transforming growth factor ß (TGFß) family signaling through SMAD4 in colonic epithelial cells. Methods: The Smad4 gene was deleted specifically in adult murine intestinal epithelium. Colitis was induced by 3 rounds of dextran sodium sulfate in drinking water, after which mice were observed for up to 3 months. Nontransformed mouse colonocyte cell lines and colonoid cultures and human colorectal cancer cell lines were analyzed for responses to TGFß1 and bone morphogenetic protein 2. Results: Dextran sodium sulfate treatment was sufficient to drive carcinogenesis in mice lacking colonic Smad4 expression, with resulting tumors bearing striking resemblance to human colitis-associated carcinoma. Loss of SMAD4 protein was observed in 48% of human colitis-associated carcinoma samples as compared with 19% of sporadic colorectal carcinomas. Loss of Smad4 increased the expression of inflammatory mediators within nontransformed mouse colon epithelial cells in vivo. In vitro analysis of mouse and human colonic epithelial cell lines and organoids indicated that much of this regulation was cell autonomous. Furthermore, TGFß signaling inhibited the epithelial inflammatory response to proinflammatory cytokines. Conclusions: TGFß suppresses the expression of proinflammatory genes in the colon epithelium, and loss of its downstream mediator, SMAD4, is sufficient to initiate inflammation-driven colon cancer. Transcript profiling: GSE100082.

Role of Smad proteins in the regulation of NF-kappaB by TGF-beta in colon cancer cells.

Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB) has been implicated in cancer cell survival. We explored the role of the TGF-beta pathway in the regulation of NF-kappaB in colon cancer cells. TGF-beta-1 treatment of the colon adenocarcinoma cell line FET-1, results in an early increase in IkappaB-alpha phosphorylation that precedes NF-kappaB nuclear translocation and DNA binding activity. Activation of the TGF-beta type I receptor is required for the TGF-beta-mediated activation of NF-kappaB. No activation of NF-kappaB is observed in a Smad4 null cell line, SW480, even though TGF-beta does result in IkappaB-alpha phosphorylation in these cells. Smad4 restores the TGF-beta-1-mediated NF-kappaB activation in SW480 cells. TGF-beta-1 treatment fails to activate NF-kappaB or phosphorylate IkappaB-alpha in FET-1 cells expressing the inhibitory Smad, Smad7. Taken together, these results suggest a role for Smad4 in the transcriptional activation of NF-kappaB, and a direct effect of Smad 7 inhibiting IkappaB-alpha phosphorylation rather than through the well-established inhibition of Smad2/3 phosphorylation with subsequent inhibition of the TGF-beta pathway.

Small molecule/ML327 mediated transcriptional de-repression of E-cadherin and inhibition of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition.

Transcriptional repression of E-cadherin is a hallmark of Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) and is associated with cancer cell invasion and metastasis. Understanding the mechanisms underlying E-cadherin repression during EMT may provide insights into the development of novel targeted therapeutics for cancer. Here, we report on the chemical probe, ML327, which de-represses E-cadherin transcription, partially reverses EMT, and inhibits cancer cell invasiveness and tumor cell migration in vitro and in vivo. Induction of E-cadherin mRNA expression by ML327 treatment does not require de novo protein synthesis. RNA sequencing analysis revealed that ML327 treatment significantly alters expression of over 2,500 genes within three hours in the presence of the translational inhibitor, cycloheximide. Network analysis reveals Hepatocyte Nuclear Factor 4-alpha (HNF4α) as the most significant upstream transcriptional regulator of multiple genes whose expressions were altered by ML327 treatment. Further, small interfering RNA-mediated depletion of HNF4α markedly attenuates the E-cadherin expression response to ML327. In summary, ML327 represents a valuable tool to understand mechanisms of EMT and may provide the basis for a novel targeted therapeutic strategy for carcinomas.