Pediatric anesthesia in Europe: Variations within uniformity.

Organization of healthcare strongly differs between European countries and results in country-specific requirements in postgraduate medical training. Within the European Union (EU), the European Board of Anaesthesiology has set recommendations of training for the Specialty of Anaesthesiology including standards for Postgraduate Medical Specialist training including a description for providing service in pediatric anesthesia. However, these standards are advisory and not mandatory. Here we aimed to review the current state and associated challenges of pediatric anesthesia training in Europe. We report an important country-specific variability both in training and regulations of practice of pediatric anesthesia in the EU and in the United Kingdom. The requirements for training in pediatric anesthesia varies between nothing specified (Belgium) or providing anesthesia with direct supervision to a minimum of 50 cases below 5 years of age (Germany) to 3-6 month clinical practice in a specialized pediatric hospital (France). Likewise, the regulations for providing anesthesia to children varies from no regulations at all (Belgium) to age specific requirements and centralization of all children below 4 years of age to specified centers (United Kingdom). Officially recognized pediatric anesthesia fellowship programs are not available in most countries of Europe. It remains unclear if and how country-specific differences in pediatric anesthesia training are associated with clinical outcomes in pediatric perioperative care. There is converging interest and support for the establishment of a European pediatric anesthesia curriculum.

Ephedrine to treat intraoperative hypotension in infants: what is the target?

Off-label use of medications in paediatric anaesthesia is common practice, owing to the relative paucity of evidence-based dosing regimens in children. Well-performed dose-finding studies, especially in infants, are rare and urgently needed. Unanticipated effects can result when paediatric dosing is based on adult parameters or local traditions. A recent dose-finding study on ephedrine highlights the uniqueness of paediatric dosing in comparison with adult dosing. We discuss the problems of off-label medication use and the lack of evidence for various definitions of hypotension and associated treatment strategies in paediatric anaesthesia. What is the aim of treating hypotension associated with anaesthesia induction: restoring the MAP to awake baseline values or elevating it above a provisional hypotension threshold?

Needle-free pharmacological sedation techniques in paediatric patients for imaging procedures: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Sedation techniques and drugs are increasingly used in children undergoing imaging procedures. In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we present an overview of literature concerning sedation of children aged 0-8 yr for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) procedures using needle-free pharmacological techniques. METHODS: Embase, MEDLINE, Web of Science, and Cochrane databases were systematically searched for studies on the use of needle-free pharmacological sedation techniques for MRI procedures in children aged 0-8 yr. Studies using i.v. or i.m. medication or advanced airway devices were excluded. We performed a meta-analysis on sedation success rate. Secondary outcomes were onset time, duration, recovery, and adverse events. RESULTS: Sixty-seven studies were included, with 22 380 participants. The pooled success rate for oral chloral hydrate was 94% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.91-0.96); for oral chloral hydrate and intranasal dexmedetomidine 95% (95% CI: 0.92-0.97); for rectal, oral, or intranasal midazolam 36% (95% CI: 0.14-0.65); for oral pentobarbital 99% (95% CI: 0.90-1.00); for rectal thiopental 92% (95% CI: 0.85-0.96); for oral melatonin 75% (95% CI: 0.54-0.89); for intranasal dexmedetomidine 62% (95% CI: 0.38-0.82); for intranasal dexmedetomidine and midazolam 94% (95% CI: 0.78-0.99); and for inhaled sevoflurane 98% (95% CI: 0.97-0.99). CONCLUSIONS: We found a large variation in medication, dosage, and route of administration for needle-free sedation. Success rates for sedation techniques varied between 36% and 98%.

Age-dependent changes in arterial blood pressure in neonates during the first week of life: reference values and development of a model.

BACKGROUND: Arterial pressure measurements are important to monitor vital function in neonates, and values are known to be dependent of gestational and postnatal age. Current reference ranges for mean arterial pressure in neonates have been derived from small samples and combined data of noninvasive and invasive measurements. We aimed to define reference values for noninvasive mean, systolic, and diastolic blood pressure during the first week of life in otherwise healthy preterm and term neonates defined by gestational and postnatal age. METHODS: In this retrospective cohort study in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) in a Dutch tertiary paediatric hospital, we included the noninvasive blood pressures of neonates admitted between 2016 and 2018, with exclusion of those with severe comorbidities (major cardiac malformations, intracerebral haemorrhage, and tracheal intubation >6 h). We defined the median (P50) with -2 standard deviations (sd) (P0.23), -1 sd (P16), +1 sd (P84), and +2 sd (P97.7) for gestational age and postnatal age using quantile regression, percentiles provided online (http://bloodpressure-neonate.com/). RESULTS: A total of 607 neonates, with 5885 measurements, fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The P50 values of mean noninvasive arterial blood pressure in extreme preterm infants steeply increased during the first day after birth and gradually increased within a week from 27 to 49 mm Hg at 24 h of gestational age, and from 49 to 61 mm Hg at 41 weeks of gestational age. CONCLUSIONS: These reference values for noninvasive blood pressure in neonates in the NICU for various gestational age groups provide guidance for clinical decision-making in healthy and diseased neonates during anaesthesia and sedation.

The eXpectations of Parents regarding Anesthesiology Study (XPAS) from a parental perspective: a two-phase observational cross-sectional cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Uncertainty concerning anesthetic procedures and risks in children requiring anesthesia may cause concerns in parents and caregivers. AIMS: To explore parental expectations and experiences regarding their child's anesthesia using questionnaires designed with parental input. METHODS: This observational cross-sectional cohort study included parents (including caregivers) of children undergoing anesthesia in a tertiary pediatric referral university hospital. The study consisted of two phases. In Phase 1, we developed three questionnaires with parental involvement through a focus group discussion and individual interviews. The questionnaires focused on parental satisfaction, knowledge, concerns, and need for preparation regarding their child's anesthesia. In Phase 2, independent samples of parents completed the questionnaires at three time points: before the preanesthesia assessment (T1), 2 days after the preanesthesia assessment (T2), and 4 days after the anesthetic procedure (T3). RESULTS: In Phase 1, 22 parents were involved in the development of the questionnaires. The three questionnaires contained 43 questions in total, of which 10 had been proposed by parents. In Phase 2, 78% (474 out of 934) parents participated at T1, 36% (610 out of 1705), at T2 and 34% (546 out of 1622) at T3. Parental satisfaction scores were rated on a visual analogue scale for the preanesthesia assessment with a median of 87/100, and with a median of 90/100 for the anesthetic procedure (0: not satisfied and 100: satisfied). Parental concerns were rated with a median of 50/100 (0: no concerns and 100: extremely concerned). Parental answers from the questionnaire at T2 revealed significant knowledge deficits, with only 73% reporting that the anesthesiologist was a physician. Parents preferred to receive more information about the procedure, especially regarding the intended effects and side effects of anesthesia. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, parental satisfaction scores regarding the pediatric anesthesiology procedure were high, with a minority expressing concerns. Parents indicated a preference for their child's anesthesiologist to visit them both before and after the anesthetic procedure. Parental expectations regarding anesthesia did not completely correspond with the information provided; more information from the clinician about the intended effects and side effects of anesthesia was desired.

Perioperative anaesthetic management and short-term outcome of neonatal repair of oesophageal atresia with or without tracheo-oesophageal fistula in Europe: A sub-analysis of the neonate and children audit of anaesthesia practice in Europe (NECTARINE) prospective multicenter observational study.

BACKGROUND: Oesophageal atresia with or without a tracheo-oesophageal fistula is a congenital abnormality that usually requires surgical repair within the first days of life. OBJECTIVE: Description of the perioperative anaesthetic management and outcomes of neonates undergoing surgery for oesophageal atresia with or without a tracheo-oesophageal fistula, included in the 'neonate and children audit of anaesthesia practice in Europe' (NECTARINE) database. DESIGN: Sub-analyses of prospective observational NECTARINE study. SETTING: European multicentre study. PATIENTS: Neonates who underwent surgery for oesophageal atresia with or without a tracheo-oesophageal fistula in the NECTARINE cohort were selected. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Incidence rates with 95% confidence intervals were calculated for peri-operative clinical events which required a predetermined intervention, postoperative complications, and mortality. RESULTS: One hundred and three neonates undergoing a first surgical intervention for oesophageal atresia with or without a tracheo-oesophageal fistula repair were identified. Their median gestational age was 38 weeks with a median birth weight of 2840 [interquartile range 2150 to 3150] grams. Invasive monitoring was used in 66% of the procedures. The incidence of perioperative clinical events was 69% (95% confidence interval 59 to 77%), of 30-day postoperative complications 47% (95% confidence interval 38 to 57%) and the 30- and 90 days mortality rates were 2.1% and 2.6%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Oesophageal atresia with or without a tracheo-oesophageal fistula repair in neonates is associated with a high number of perioperative interventions in response to clinical events, a high incidence of postoperative complications, and a substantial mortality rate.

Perioperative Mortality in Pediatric Patients: A Systematic Review of Risk Assessment Tools for Use in the Preoperative Setting.

BACKGROUND: There are multiple preoperative risk scores for pediatric mortality. The aim of this study was to systematically describe and compare the existing studies of patient-specific multispecialty risk prediction scores for perioperative mortality in pediatric populations, with the goal of guiding clinicians on which may be most appropriate for use in the preoperative setting. METHODS: This study is a systematic literature review of published journal articles that presented the development, extension/updating, and/or validation of a risk core that predicted all-cause mortality (up to 30 days postoperatively) in pediatric patients undergoing a procedure in which anesthesia was used. Scores needed to be applicable to surgeries in more than one noncardiac surgical specialty and had to be able to be calculated by the anesthesiologist at the time of the preanesthetic assessment. Two investigators independently screened studies for inclusion and assessed study quality in the domains of clinical applicability, feasibility/ease of use in the clinical setting, and risk of bias. RESULTS: A total of 1,681 titles were retrieved. Of these, 10 studies met inclusion criteria: 9 reported the development and validation of scores, and 1 was an external validation of an existing score. Seven studies used varying years of multicenter data from the National Surgical Quality Improvement Program-Pediatric Participant Use File for development and/or validation. The unadjusted rate of mortality in the studies ranged from 0.3 to 3.6%. The preoperative predictors of mortality used in score development included patient demographics, preoperative therapies, and chronic conditions, among others. All models showed good discrimination upon validation (area under the receiver operating characteristics curve greater than 0.8). Most risk scores had high or unclear risks of bias. CONCLUSIONS: There are numerous scores available for the prediction of mortality in pediatric populations, all of which exhibited good performance. However, many have high or unclear risks of bias, and most have not undergone external validation.

Isoelectric Electroencephalography in Infants and Toddlers during Anesthesia for Surgery: An International Observational Study.

BACKGROUND: Intraoperative isoelectric electroencephalography (EEG) has been associated with hypotension and postoperative delirium in adults. This international prospective observational study sought to determine the prevalence of isoelectric EEG in young children during anesthesia. The authors hypothesized that the prevalence of isoelectric events would be common worldwide and associated with certain anesthetic practices and intraoperative hypotension. METHODS: Fifteen hospitals enrolled patients age 36 months or younger for surgery using sevoflurane or propofol anesthetic. Frontal four-channel EEG was recorded for isoelectric events. Demographics, anesthetic, emergence behavior, and Pediatric Quality of Life variables were analyzed for association with isoelectric events. RESULTS: Isoelectric events occurred in 32% (206 of 648) of patients, varied significantly among sites (9 to 88%), and were most prevalent during pre-incision (117 of 628; 19%) and surgical maintenance (117 of 643; 18%). Isoelectric events were more likely with infants younger than 3 months (odds ratio, 4.4; 95% CI, 2.57 to 7.4; P < 0.001), endotracheal tube use (odds ratio, 1.78; 95% CI, 1.16 to 2.73; P = 0.008), and propofol bolus for airway placement after sevoflurane induction (odds ratio, 2.92; 95% CI, 1.78 to 4.8; P < 0.001), and less likely with use of muscle relaxant for intubation (odds ratio, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.46 to 0.99; P = 0.046]. Expired sevoflurane was higher in patients with isoelectric events during preincision (mean difference, 0.2%; 95% CI, 0.1 to 0.4; P = 0.005) and surgical maintenance (mean difference, 0.2%; 95% CI, 0.1 to 0.3; P = 0.002). Isoelectric events were associated with moderate (8 of 12, 67%) and severe hypotension (11 of 18, 61%) during preincision (odds ratio, 4.6; 95% CI, 1.30 to 16.1; P = 0.018) (odds ratio, 3.54; 95% CI, 1.27 to 9.9; P = 0.015) and surgical maintenance (odds ratio, 3.64; 95% CI, 1.71 to 7.8; P = 0.001) (odds ratio, 7.1; 95% CI, 1.78 to 28.1; P = 0.005), and lower Pediatric Quality of Life scores at baseline in patients 0 to 12 months (median of differences, -3.5; 95% CI, -6.2 to -0.7; P = 0.008) and 25 to 36 months (median of differences, -6.3; 95% CI, -10.4 to -2.1; P = 0.003) and 30-day follow-up in 0 to 12 months (median of differences, -2.8; 95% CI, -4.9 to 0; P = 0.036). Isoelectric events were not associated with emergence behavior or anesthetic (sevoflurane vs. propofol). CONCLUSIONS: Isoelectric events were common worldwide in young children during anesthesia and associated with age, specific anesthetic practices, and intraoperative hypotension.

Cognitive Outcomes in Children With Conditions Affecting the Small Intestine: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to assess cognitive outcomes in children with intestinal failure (IF) and children at high risk of IF with conditions affecting the small intestine requiring parenteral nutrition. METHODS: EMBASE, Cochrane, Web of Science, Google Scholar, MEDLINE, and PsycINFO were searched from inception to October 2020. Studies were included constituting original data on developmental quotient (DQ), intelligence quotient (IQ) and/or severe developmental delay/disability (SDD) rates assessed with standardized tests. We used appropriate standardized tools to extract data and assess study quality. We performed random effects meta-analyses to estimate pooled means of DQ/IQ and pooled SDD rates (general population mean for DQ/IQ: 100, for percentage with SDD: 1.8%) for 4 groups: IF, surgical necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), abdominal wall defects (AWD), and midgut malformations (MM). Associations of patient characteristics with DQ/IQ were evaluated with meta-regressions. RESULTS: Thirty studies met the inclusion criteria. The pooled mean DQ/IQ for IF, NEC, AWD, and MM were 86.8, 83.3, 96.6, and 99.5, respectively. The pooled SDD rates for IF, NEC, AWD and MM were 28.6%, 32.8%, 8.5%, and 3.7%, respectively. Meta-regressions indicated that lower gestational age, longer hospital stay, and higher number of surgeries but not parenteral nutrition duration, were associated with lower DQ/IQ. CONCLUSIONS: Adverse developmental outcomes are common in children with IF and NEC, and to a much lesser extent in children with AWD and MM. It is important to monitor cognitive development in children with conditions affecting the small intestine and to explore avenues for prevention and remediation.

Neonates undergoing pyloric stenosis repair are at increased risk of difficult airway management: secondary analysis of the NEonate and Children audiT of Anaesthesia pRactice IN Europe.

BACKGROUND: Hypertrophic pyloric stenosis in otherwise healthy neonates frequently requires urgent surgical procedure but anaesthesia care may result in respiratory complications, such as hypoxaemia, pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents, and postoperative apnoea. The primary aim was to study whether or not the incidence of difficult airway management and of hypoxaemia in neonates undergoing pyloric stenosis repair was higher than that in neonates undergoing other surgeries. METHODS: Data on neonates and infants undergoing anaesthesia and surgery for pyloric stenosis were extracted from the NEonate and Children audiT of Anesthesia pRactice In Europe (NECTARINE) database, for secondary analysis. RESULTS: We identified 310 infants who had anaesthesia for surgery for pyloric stenosis. Difficult airway management (more than two attempts at laryngoscopy) was higher in children with pyloric stenosis when compared with the entire NECTARINE cohort (7.9% [95% confidence interval {CI}, 5.22-11.53] vs 4.4% [95% CI, 1.99-6.58]; relative risk [RR]=1.81 [95% CI, 1.21-2.69]; P=0.004), whereas transient hypoxaemia with oxygen saturation <90% was comparable between the two cohorts. Postoperative complications occurred in 16 children (5.6%) within the 30-day follow-up. No mortality was reported at 30 and 90 days. CONCLUSIONS: Children undergoing surgery for pyloric stenosis had a higher incidence of difficult intubation compared with the entire NECTARINE cohort. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT02350348.

Peri-operative red blood cell transfusion in neonates and infants: NEonate and Children audiT of Anaesthesia pRactice IN Europe: A prospective European multicentre observational study.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about current clinical practice concerning peri-operative red blood cell transfusion in neonates and small infants. Guidelines suggest transfusions based on haemoglobin thresholds ranging from 8.5 to 12 g dl-1, distinguishing between children from birth to day 7 (week 1), from day 8 to day 14 (week 2) or from day 15 (≥week 3) onwards. OBJECTIVE: To observe peri-operative red blood cell transfusion practice according to guidelines in relation to patient outcome. DESIGN: A multicentre observational study. SETTING: The NEonate-Children sTudy of Anaesthesia pRactice IN Europe (NECTARINE) trial recruited patients up to 60 weeks' postmenstrual age undergoing anaesthesia for surgical or diagnostic procedures from 165 centres in 31 European countries between March 2016 and January 2017. PATIENTS: The data included 5609 patients undergoing 6542 procedures. Inclusion criteria was a peri-operative red blood cell transfusion. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary endpoint was the haemoglobin level triggering a transfusion for neonates in week 1, week 2 and week 3. Secondary endpoints were transfusion volumes, 'delta haemoglobin' (preprocedure - transfusion-triggering) and 30-day and 90-day morbidity and mortality. RESULTS: Peri-operative red blood cell transfusions were recorded during 447 procedures (6.9%). The median haemoglobin levels triggering a transfusion were 9.6 [IQR 8.7 to 10.9] g dl-1 for neonates in week 1, 9.6 [7.7 to 10.4] g dl-1 in week 2 and 8.0 [7.3 to 9.0] g dl-1 in week 3. The median transfusion volume was 17.1 [11.1 to 26.4] ml kg-1 with a median delta haemoglobin of 1.8 [0.0 to 3.6] g dl-1. Thirty-day morbidity was 47.8% with an overall mortality of 11.3%. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate lower transfusion-triggering haemoglobin thresholds in clinical practice than suggested by current guidelines. The high morbidity and mortality of this NECTARINE sub-cohort calls for investigative action and evidence-based guidelines addressing peri-operative red blood cell transfusions strategies. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT02350348.

Off-label use of dexmedetomidine in paediatric anaesthesiology: an international survey of 791 (paediatric) anaesthesiologists.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this international study was to investigate prescribing practices of dexmedetomidine by paediatric anaesthesiologists. METHODS: We performed an online survey on the prescription rate of dexmedetomidine, route of administration and dosage, adverse drug reactions, education on the drug and overall experience. Members of specialist paediatric anaesthesia societies of Europe (ESPA), New Zealand and Australia (SPANZA), Great Britain and Ireland (APAGBI) and the USA (SPA) were consulted. Responses were collected in July and August 2019. RESULTS: Data from 791 responders (17% of 5171 invitees) were included in the analyses. Dexmedetomidine was prescribed by 70% of the respondents (ESPA 53%; SPANZA 69%; APAGBI 34% and SPA 96%), mostly for procedural sedation (68%), premedication (46%) and/or ICU sedation (46%). Seventy-three percent had access to local or national protocols, although lack of education was the main reason cited by 26% of the respondents not to prescribe dexmedetomidine. The main difference in dexmedetomidine use concerned the age of patients (SPA primarily < 1 year, others primarily > 1 year). The dosage varied widely ranging from 0.2-5 µg kg-1 for nasal premedication, 0.2-8 µg kg-1 for nasal procedural sedation and 0-4 µg kg-1 intravenously as adjuvant for anaesthesia. Only ESPA members (61%) had noted an adverse drug reaction, namely bradycardia. CONCLUSION: The majority of anaesthesiologists use dexmedetomidine in paediatrics for premedication, procedural sedation, ICU sedation and anaesthesia, despite the off-label use and sparse evidence. The large intercontinental differences in prescribing dexmedetomidine call for consensus and worldwide education on the optimal use in paediatric practice.

Morbidity and mortality after anaesthesia in early life: results of the European prospective multicentre observational study, neonate and children audit of anaesthesia practice in Europe (NECTARINE).

BACKGROUND: Neonates and infants requiring anaesthesia are at risk of physiological instability and complications, but triggers for peri-anaesthetic interventions and associations with subsequent outcome are unknown. METHODS: This prospective, observational study recruited patients up to 60 weeks' postmenstrual age undergoing anaesthesia for surgical or diagnostic procedures from 165 centres in 31 European countries between March 2016 and January 2017. The primary aim was to identify thresholds of pre-determined physiological variables that triggered a medical intervention. The secondary aims were to evaluate morbidities, mortality at 30 and 90 days, or both, and associations with critical events. RESULTS: Infants (n=5609) born at mean (standard deviation [sd]) 36.2 (4.4) weeks postmenstrual age (35.7% preterm) underwent 6542 procedures within 63 (48) days of birth. Critical event(s) requiring intervention occurred in 35.2% of cases, mainly hypotension (>30% decrease in blood pressure) or reduced oxygenation (SpO2 <85%). Postmenstrual age influenced the incidence and thresholds for intervention. Risk of critical events was increased by prior neonatal medical conditions, congenital anomalies, or both (relative risk [RR]=1.16; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.04-1.28) and in those requiring preoperative intensive support (RR=1.27; 95% CI, 1.15-1.41). Additional complications occurred in 16.3% of patients by 30 days, and overall 90-day mortality was 3.2% (95% CI, 2.7-3.7%). Co-occurrence of intraoperative hypotension, hypoxaemia, and anaemia was associated with increased risk of morbidity (RR=3.56; 95% CI, 1.64-7.71) and mortality (RR=19.80; 95% CI, 5.87-66.7). CONCLUSIONS: Variability in physiological thresholds that triggered an intervention, and the impact of poor tissue oxygenation on patient's outcome, highlight the need for more standardised perioperative management guidelines for neonates and infants. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT02350348.

Long-term neurodevelopment in children born with esophageal atresia: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Although the survival rate of esophageal atresia (EA) has increased to over 90%, the risk of functional long-term neurodevelopmental deficits is uncertain. Studies on long-term outcomes of children with EA show conflicting results. Therefore, we provide an overview of the current knowledge on the long-term neurodevelopmental outcome of children with EA. METHODS: We performed a structured literature search in Embase, Medline Ovid, Web of Science, Cochrane CENTRAL, and Google scholar on November 8, 2020 with the keywords 'esophageal atresia', 'long-term outcome', 'motor development', 'cognitive development', and 'neurodevelopment'. RESULTS: The initial search identified 945 studies, of which 15 were included. Five of these published outcomes of multiple tests or tested at multiple ages. Regarding infants, one of six studies found impaired neurodevelopment at 1 year of age. Regarding preschoolers, two of five studies found impaired neurodevelopment; the one study assessing cognitive development found normal cognitive outcome. Both studies on motor function reported impairment. Regarding school-agers, the one study on neurodevelopmental outcome reported impairment. Cognitive impairment was found in two out of four studies, and motor function was impaired in both studies studying motor function. CONCLUSIONS: Long-term neurodevelopment of children born with EA has been assessed with various instruments, with contrasting results. Impairments were mostly found in motor function, but also in cognitive performance. Generally, the long-term outcome of these children is reason for concern. Structured, multidisciplinary long-term follow-up programs for children born with EA would allow to timely detect neurodevelopmental impairments and to intervene, if necessary.

Associations of perioperative characteristics with motor function in preschool children born with esophageal atresia.

BACKGROUND: Children born with esophageal atresia experience long-term neurodevelopmental deficits, with unknown origin. AIMS: To find associations between perioperative variables during primary esophageal atresia repair and motor function at age 5 years. METHODS: This ambidirectional cohort study included children born with esophageal atresia who consecutively had been operated on in the Erasmus MC-Sophia Children's Hospital, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, from January 2007 through June 2013. The perioperative data of this cohort were collected retrospectively; the motor function data prospectively. RESULTS: After exclusion of patients with syndromal congenital diseases (n = 8) and lost to follow-up (n = 10), the data of 53 children were included. The mean (SD) total motor function impairment z-score at 5 years of age was -0.66 (0.99), significantly below normal (p < .001). In multivariable linear regression analysis, number of postoperative days endotracheal intubation (B = -0.211, 95% CI: -0.389 to -0.033, p = .021) was negatively associated with motor outcome, whereas high blood pressure (B = 0.022, 95% CI 0.001 to 0.042, p = .038) was positively associated. Preoperative nasal oxygen supplementation versus room air (B = 0.706, 95% CI: 0.132 to 1.280, p = .016) was positively associated with motor outcome, which we cannot explain. CONCLUSIONS: Motor function in 5-year-old esophageal atresia patients was impaired and negatively associated with the number of postoperative days of endotracheal intubation and positively associated with high blood pressure. Prospective studies with critical perioperative monitoring and monitoring during stay at the intensive care unit are recommended.

Artifacts annotations in anesthesia blood pressure data by man and machine.

Physiologic data from anesthesia monitors are automatically captured. Yet erroneous data are stored in the process as well. While this is not interfering with clinical care, research can be affected. Researchers should find ways to remove artifacts. The aim of the present study was to compare different artifact annotation strategies, and to assess if a machine learning algorithm is able to accept or reject individual data points. Non-cardiac procedures requiring invasive blood pressure monitoring were eligible. Two trained research assistants observed procedures live for artifacts. The same procedures were also retrospectively annotated for artifacts by a different person. We compared the different ways of artifact identifications and modelled artifacts with three different learning algorithms (lasso restrictive logistic regression, neural network and support vector machine). In 88 surgical procedures including 5711 blood pressure data points, the live observed incidence of artifacts was 2.1% and the retrospective incidence was 2.2%. Comparing retrospective with live annotation revealed a sensitivity of 0.32 and specificity of 0.98. The performance of the learning algorithms which we applied ranged from poor (kappa 0.053) to moderate (kappa 0.651). Manual identification of artifacts yielded different incidences in different situations, which were not comparable. Artifact detection in physiologic data collected during anesthesia could be automated, but the performance of the learning algorithms in the present study remained moderate. Future research should focus on optimization and finding ways to apply them with minimal manual work. The present study underlines the importance of an explicit definition for artifacts in database research.

Neurodevelopmental outcome at 5 years of age after general anaesthesia or awake-regional anaesthesia in infancy (GAS): an international, multicentre, randomised, controlled equivalence trial.

BACKGROUND: In laboratory animals, exposure to most general anaesthetics leads to neurotoxicity manifested by neuronal cell death and abnormal behaviour and cognition. Some large human cohort studies have shown an association between general anaesthesia at a young age and subsequent neurodevelopmental deficits, but these studies are prone to bias. Others have found no evidence for an association. We aimed to establish whether general anaesthesia in early infancy affects neurodevelopmental outcomes. METHODS: In this international, assessor-masked, equivalence, randomised, controlled trial conducted at 28 hospitals in Australia, Italy, the USA, the UK, Canada, the Netherlands, and New Zealand, we recruited infants of less than 60 weeks' postmenstrual age who were born at more than 26 weeks' gestation and were undergoing inguinal herniorrhaphy, without previous exposure to general anaesthesia or risk factors for neurological injury. Patients were randomly assigned (1:1) by use of a web-based randomisation service to receive either awake-regional anaesthetic or sevoflurane-based general anaesthetic. Anaesthetists were aware of group allocation, but individuals administering the neurodevelopmental assessments were not. Parents were informed of their infants group allocation upon request, but were told to mask this information from assessors. The primary outcome measure was full-scale intelligence quotient (FSIQ) on the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, third edition (WPPSI-III), at 5 years of age. The primary analysis was done on a per-protocol basis, adjusted for gestational age at birth and country, with multiple imputation used to account for missing data. An intention-to-treat analysis was also done. A difference in means of 5 points was predefined as the clinical equivalence margin. This completed trial is registered with ANZCTR, number ACTRN12606000441516, and ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00756600. FINDINGS: Between Feb 9, 2007, and Jan 31, 2013, 4023 infants were screened and 722 were randomly allocated: 363 (50%) to the awake-regional anaesthesia group and 359 (50%) to the general anaesthesia group. There were 74 protocol violations in the awake-regional anaesthesia group and two in the general anaesthesia group. Primary outcome data for the per-protocol analysis were obtained from 205 children in the awake-regional anaesthesia group and 242 in the general anaesthesia group. The median duration of general anaesthesia was 54 min (IQR 41-70). The mean FSIQ score was 99·08 (SD 18·35) in the awake-regional anaesthesia group and 98·97 (19·66) in the general anaesthesia group, with a difference in means (awake-regional anaesthesia minus general anaesthesia) of 0·23 (95% CI -2·59 to 3·06), providing strong evidence of equivalence. The results of the intention-to-treat analysis were similar to those of the per-protocol analysis. INTERPRETATION: Slightly less than 1 h of general anaesthesia in early infancy does not alter neurodevelopmental outcome at age 5 years compared with awake-regional anaesthesia in a predominantly male study population. FUNDING: US National Institutes of Health, US Food and Drug Administration, Thrasher Research Fund, Australian National Health and Medical Research Council, Health Technologies Assessment-National Institute for Health Research (UK), Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Canadian Anesthesiologists Society, Pfizer Canada, Italian Ministry of Health, Fonds NutsOhra, UK Clinical Research Network, Perth Children's Hospital Foundation, the Stan Perron Charitable Trust, and the Callahan Estate.

Artifact Processing Methods Influence on Intraoperative Hypotension Quantification and Outcome Effect Estimates.

BACKGROUND: Physiologic data that is automatically collected during anesthesia is widely used for medical record keeping and clinical research. These data contain artifacts, which are not relevant in clinical care, but may influence research results. The aim of this study was to explore the effect of different methods of filtering and processing artifacts in anesthesiology data on study findings in order to demonstrate the importance of proper artifact filtering. METHODS: The authors performed a systematic literature search to identify artifact filtering methods. Subsequently, these methods were applied to the data of anesthesia procedures with invasive blood pressure monitoring. Different hypotension measures were calculated (i.e., presence, duration, maximum deviation below threshold, and area under threshold) across different definitions (i.e., thresholds for mean arterial pressure of 50, 60, 65, 70 mmHg). These were then used to estimate the association with postoperative myocardial injury. RESULTS: After screening 3,585 papers, the authors included 38 papers that reported artifact filtering methods. The authors applied eight of these methods to the data of 2,988 anesthesia procedures. The occurrence of hypotension (defined with a threshold of 50 mmHg) varied from 24% with a median filter of seven measurements to 55% without an artifact filtering method, and between 76 and 90% with a threshold of 65 mmHg. Standardized odds ratios for presence of hypotension ranged from 1.16 (95% CI, 1.07 to 1.26) to 1.24 (1.14 to 1.34) when hypotension was defined with a threshold of 50 mmHg. Similar variations in standardized odds ratios were found when applying methods to other hypotension measures and definitions. CONCLUSIONS: The method of artifact filtering can have substantial effects on estimates of hypotension prevalence. The effect on the association between intraoperative hypotension and postoperative myocardial injury was relatively small. Nevertheless, the authors recommend that researchers carefully consider artifacts handling and report the methodology used.

Patient and anesthesia characteristics of children with low pre-incision blood pressure: A retrospective observational study.

BACKGROUND: Intraoperative blood pressure has been suggested as a key factor for safe pediatric anesthesia. However, there is not much insight into factors that discriminate between children with low and normal pre-incision blood pressure. Our aim was to explore whether children who have a low blood pressure during anesthesia are different than those with normal blood pressure. The focus of the present study was on the pre-incision period. METHODS: This retrospective study included pediatric patients undergoing anesthesia for non-cardiac surgery at a tertiary pediatric university hospital, between 2012 and 2016. We analyzed the association between pre-incision blood pressure and patient- and anesthesia characteristics, comparing low with normal pre-incision blood pressure. This association was further explored with a multivariable linear regression. RESULTS: In total, 20 962 anesthetic cases were included. Pre-incision blood pressure was associated with age (beta -0.04 SD per year), gender (female -0.11), previous surgery (-0.15), preoperative blood pressure (+0.01 per mm Hg), epilepsy (0.12), bronchial hyperactivity (-0.18), emergency surgery (0.10), loco-regional technique (-0.48), artificial airway device (supraglottic airway device instead of tube 0.07), and sevoflurane concentration (0.03 per sevoflurane %). CONCLUSIONS: Children with low pre-incision blood pressure do not differ on clinically relevant factors from children with normal blood pressure. Although the present explorative study shows that pre-incision blood pressure is partly dependent on patient characteristics and partly dependent on anesthetic technique, other unmeasured variables might play a more important role.

A retrospective cohort study of adverse event assessment during anesthesia-related procedures for cochlear implant candidacy assessment and cochlear implantation in infants and toddlers.

BACKGROUND: Cochlear implantation in children with sensorineural hearing loss is preferably performed at youngest age because early auditory input is essential to prevent neural plasticity decline. In contrast, the rate of anesthetic adverse events is increased during infancy. Therefore, to provide recommendations regarding an optimal pediatric implantation age, these possible anesthetic risks in infants need to be taken into account. AIMS: This study aimed at assessing the relation between the age at cochlear implant surgery and anesthetic and surgical adverse events. Secondary aims were to evaluate anesthetic and surgical adverse events in relation to (a) the number of preoperative anesthesia-related procedures for cochlear implant candidacy assessment and (b) the anesthetic maintenance agent (total intravenous anesthesia versus inhalation anesthesia) during implantation. METHODS: We executed a retrospective cohort study to evaluate cochlear implantation performed in infants and toddlers between January 2008 and July 2015 in a tertiary pediatric center. We compared anesthetic and surgical adverse events between age-at-implantation (0-12 and 12-24 months of age) groups. Furthermore, we assessed whether anesthetic adverse events occurred during preoperative anesthesia-related procedures for cochlear implant candidacy assessment. RESULTS: Forty-six cochlear implantations were performed in 43 patients requiring 42 preoperative anesthesia-related procedures. Nineteen cochlear implantations (41.3%) were performed during infancy. During implantation, the maintenance agent was either sevoflurane (n = 22) or propofol (n = 24). None of the patients encountered major anesthetic adverse events, whereas minor adverse events occurred during 34 cochlear implantations. Those attributed to surgery occurred following six implantations. Neither the age at implantation nor the anesthetic maintenance agent was significantly related to the occurrence of both types of adverse events. CONCLUSIONS: Adverse events occur independent of the age at implantation, the number of anesthetic preoperative procedures, and the type of anesthetic maintenance agent in patients who received a cochlear implant before 24 months of age.