A metapopulation model of dog rabies transmission in N'Djamena, Chad.

Rabies transmission was interrupted for several months in N'Djamena, the capital city of Chad, after two mass vaccination campaigns of dogs. However, there was a resurgence in cases, which was not predicted by previous models of rabies transmission. We developed a deterministic metapopulation model with importation of latent dogs, calibrated to four years of weekly incidence data from passive surveillance, to investigate possible causes for the early resurgence. Our results indicate that importation of latently infective dogs better explains the data than heterogeneity or underreporting. Stochastic implementations of the model suggest that the two vaccination campaigns averted approximately 67 cases of dog rabies (out of an estimated 74 cases without vaccination) and 124 human exposures (out of an estimated 148 human exposures without vaccination) over two years. Dog rabies vaccination is therefore an effective way of preventing rabies in the dog population and to subsequently reduce human exposure. However, vaccination campaigns have to be repeated to maintain the effect or reintroduction through importation has to be prevented.

Lessons for rabies control and elimination programmes: a decade of One Health experience from Bali, Indonesia.

Since the emergence of rabies on Bali, Indonesia, in 2008, the Indonesian Government and other stakeholders have implemented disease control and prevention activities with the aim of re-securing Bali's freedom from dog-mediated rabies. The authors report on the lessons learned during these efforts, and their applicability to other regions where canine rabies is endemic, as well as to rabies-free populations that are at risk from incursions. To eliminate rabies from Bali will require time and commitment, as well as a combination of approaches employing the principle of One Health. Efforts should be directed towards well-coordinated, highcoverage, annual dog vaccination campaigns using high-quality vaccines, and enhanced surveillance focused on investigations of biting animals. Bali, an island, is an ideal target for achieving freedom from rabies, but the logistics of vaccinating its very large, free-roaming dog population are challenging. Lessons can be drawn from Bali for other large and dense dog populations, where dog management and rabies control appear difficult. Well-trained teams with nets can rapidly catch and vaccinate large numbers of dogs where central-point vaccination is insufficient, and post vaccination surveys of collared dogs can be used to evaluate coverage and target supplementary vaccination. However, careful planning is required to ensure that all communities are reached during such campaigns and that sufficient vaccine is available over the following years. Effective communication strategies are needed to coordinate intersectoral activities, and to keep communities engaged, particularly during the 'end game', when the risk of rabies appears only minimal. An effective One Health approach to eliminate rabies requires long-term planning, multisectoral communication and coordination, and sustained effort, using tried and tested methods.

Suite à l'émergence de la rage à Bali (Indonésie) en 2008, le gouvernement indonésien et d'autre parties prenantes ont introduit des mesures de contrôle et de prévention de la maladie afin de sécuriser le statut précédemment indemne de Bali au regard de la rage transmise par les chiens. Les auteurs font le point sur les enseignements tirés de cette expérience et évaluent sa pertinence pour d'autres régions, par exemple celles où la rage canine est endémique ou qui possèdent des populations indemnes de rage mais exposées au risque d'une incursion du virus. L'élimination de la rage à Bali est une entreprise qui prendra du temps et exigera une grande détermination ainsi que le recours combiné à diverses méthodes suivant les principes Une seule santé. Les efforts devront s'orienter vers des campagnes annuelles de vaccination des chiens, qu'il faudra coordonner avec soin en assurant une couverture élevée et en faisant appel à des vaccins de haute qualité, et vers une surveillance accrue avec notamment l'investigation de tout chien responsable de morsure. De par son insularité, Bali constitue un territoire idéal pour réussir l'élimination totale de la rage, mais la logistique requise pour la vaccination est lourde, en plus du défi majeur que posent les effectifs importants de chiens errants. Les leçons tirées de l'expérience de Bali peuvent se révéler fructueuses dans d'autres régions dotées de populations canines denses et nombreuses et où les opérations de gestion de ces populations et de lutte contre la rage se présentent sous un jour peu favorable. Dans les contextes où il n'y a pas suffisamment de centres de vaccination, les chiens peuvent être capturés et vaccinés en grand nombre par des équipes bien entraînées et disposant de filets, tandis que le suivi post-vaccinal des chiens enregistrés offre un bon moyen d'évaluer la couverture vaccinale et de cibler les besoins supplémentaires. Il est essentiel de bien planifier ces campagnes afin de s'assurer qu'elles ont touché toutes les communautés et que les stocks de vaccins sont suffisants pour les années à venir. Des stratégies efficaces de communication sont nécessaires pour coordonner les activités intersectorielles et pour maintenir le niveau de motivation des communautés, en particulier en fin de campagne car les risques de rage sont alors perçus comme étant minimes. Pour être efficace, une approche Une seule santé d'élimination de la rage requiert une planification sur le long terme, une communication multisectorielle et des efforts de longue haleine recourant à des méthodes éprouvées.

Desde que en 2008 la rabia hizo su aparición en Bali (Indonesia), el Gobierno del país y otras partes interesadas han llevado a cabo una serie de actividades de control y prevención de la enfermedad con el objetivo de devolver a la isla la condición de «libre de la rabia transmitida por perros¼. Los autores dan cuenta de las enseñanzas extraídas de esta labor y examinan la viabilidad de aplicarlas a otras regiones donde la rabia canina es endémica, así como a poblaciones libres de rabia que corren peligro de sufrir incursiones de la enfermedad. Para eliminar la rabia de Bali hará falta tiempo y dedicación, así como una combinación de métodos regida por los principios de Una sola salud. Convendría centrar el trabajo en campañas anuales de vacunación de perros bien coordinadas, de amplia cobertura y realizadas con vacunas de gran calidad, que se acompañen de una vigilancia más intensa centrada en la investigación de los casos de animales mordedores. Por su condición insular, Bali ofrece condiciones idóneas para lograr la eliminación de la rabia, pero la logística de las vacunaciones es muy aparatosa y las poblaciones de perros vagabundos plantean grandes problemas. De la experiencia balinesa cabe extraer enseñanzas útiles para otras zonas que albergan poblaciones de perros amplias y densas, donde la gestión de estas poblaciones y la lucha antirrábica parecen resultar dificultosas. Allí donde la vacunación centralizada no baste, cabe desplegar equipos bien formados y provistos de redes que puedan capturar y vacunar rápidamente a un gran número de perros, empleando después, eventualmente, estudios posvacunales de los perros con collar identificativo para evaluar la cobertura y seleccionar objetivos de vacunación complementaria. Sin embargo, para llegar a todas las comunidades en el curso de tales campañas y tener la seguridad de disponer de un suministro suficiente de vacunas en los años subsiguientes hace falta una minuciosa planificación. Se necesitan asimismo dispositivos eficaces de comunicación para coordinar las actividades intersectoriales, y también hay que mantener movilizadas a las comunidades, especialmente en la fase final, cuando el riesgo de rabia parece ser mínimo. Todo método eficaz de eliminación de la rabia que parta de los postulados de Una sola salud exige planificación a largo plazo, comunicación y coordinación multisectoriales y una labor sostenida, con empleo de métodos de probada y contrastada eficacia.

Controlling dog rabies in Africa: successes, failures and prospects for the future.

Rabies is an acute and progressive encephalitis caused by lyssaviruses (family Rhabdoviridae, order Mononegavirales). Approximately 99% of the estimated 59,000 annual human rabies deaths in Africa and Asia are attributed to dog bites and are preventable through parenteral dog vaccination. In addition to dog rabies, the rabies virus also circulates in wildlife carnivores in southern Africa and virus exchange occurs readily across species barriers. In the early 1900s, rabies outbreaks were brought under control by the restriction of animal movements and by killing stray dogs. Subsequently, the disease was effectively controlled through vaccination. One prerequisite for rabies control is a thorough knowledge of dog populations. In Africa, only a few mass dog vaccination campaigns have reached the 70% coverage believed to minimise the spread of the disease. Live attenuated vaccines, such as SAG-2, used to control fox rabies in Europe, are safe for nontarget species, making oral vaccination an appealing complementary approach for dog rabies control in Africa. The success of rabies control in KwaZulu/Natal (South Africa) and Serengeti (Tanzania) is an excellent example of how public- private partnerships (PPPs) can contribute to the elimination of dog-mediated human rabies in Africa by 2030. Such PPPs are pivotal and will enhance public health awareness, promote mass dog vaccinations and improve accessibility to post-exposure prophylaxis.

La rage est une encéphalite progressive et aiguë causée par des lyssavirus (famille Rhabdoviridae, ordre Mononegavirales). Environ 99 % des 59 000 décès humains dus à la rage en Afrique et en Asie sont imputés à des morsures de chiens et seraient évitables en recourant à la vaccination des chiens par voie parentérale. En dehors du réservoir canin, le virus de la rage est également présent chez des carnivores sauvages d'Afrique australe et franchit aisément les barrières d'espèces. Au début du xxe siècle les foyers de rage ont pu être maîtrisés en restreignant les mouvements d'animaux et en contrôlant les populations de chiens errants. Par la suite la maladie a été maîtrisée efficacement au moyen de la vaccination. Il est indispensable de bien connaître les populations de chiens si l'on veut lutter efficacement contre la rage. Les campagnes de vaccinations massives des chiens réalisées en Afrique n'ont que très rarement atteint la couverture vaccinale de 70 % censée minimiser la propagation de la maladie. Compte tenu de leur innocuité pour les espèces non cibles, les vaccins à virus vivant atténué mis au point pour lutter contre la rage vulpine en Europe (par exemple le vaccin SAG2) offrent une option intéressante pour la vaccination orale des chiens en tant que méthode complémentaire contre la rage canine en Afrique. Le contrôle réussi de la rage dans le KwaZulu/Natal (Afrique du Sud) et le parc national du Serengeti (Tanzanie) illustre l'importance des partenariats public-privé pour atteindre l'objectif d'élimination de la rage humaine transmise par les chiens en Afrique d'ici 2030. Ces partenariats jouent un rôle déterminant et se traduiront à l'avenir par une meilleure prise de conscience du public, une mise en avant de la vaccination massive des chiens et un accès plus large à la prophylaxie postexposition.

La rabia es una encefalitis aguda y progresiva causada por lisavirus (familia Rhabdoviridae, orden Mononegavirales). Aproximadamente un 99% de las 59 000 muertes al año que según las estimaciones causa la rabia humana en África y Asia son atribuibles a la mordedura de un perro y podrían prevenirse con la vacunación canina por vía parenteral. En el sur de África, el virus de la rabia circula no solo en perros, sino también en carnívoros silvestres, por lo que fácilmente se producen intercambios de virus que atraviesan la barrera de las especies. A principios del siglo XX, para sofocar los brotes de rabia se restringían los movimientos de los animales y se sacrificaba a los perros vagabundos. Más adelante fue posible controlar eficazmente la enfermedad utilizando la vacunación. Un requisito previo para la lucha antirrábica es un profundo conocimiento de la población canina. De todas las campañas de vacunación masiva de perros emprendidas en África, solo unas pocas han alcanzado el nivel de cobertura del 70% que en principio se requiere para contener eficazmente la propagación de la enfermedad. Las vacunas vivas atenuadas como la SAG-2, utilizada para luchar contra la rabia vulpina en Europa, son seguras para las especies no destinatarias, lo que hace de la vacunación oral un interesante método complementario para combatir la rabia en las poblaciones de perros africanos. El éxito de la lucha antirrábica en KwaZulu/Natal (Sudáfrica) y el Serengueti (Tanzania) brinda un perfecto ejemplo de lo útil que puede ser la colaboración entre el sector público y el privado para lograr que antes de 2030 la rabia humana transmitida por perros haya desaparecido de África. Estas alianzas publicoprivadas son cruciales para generar mayor conciencia en torno a los problemas de salud pública, promover las vacunaciones masivas de perros y mejorar el acceso a las medidas de profilaxis tras la exposición.

The role of non-governmental organisations in controlling rabies: the Global Alliance for Rabies Control, Partners for Rabies Prevention and the Blueprint for Rabies Prevention and Control.

Rabies control worldwide has been inadequate and neglected for many decades, and the disease continues to predominantly affect poor communities in Africa and Asia. As a zoonosis for which the main reservoir and vector, the domestic dog (Canis familiaris), is an economically non-viable species, the absence of cross-sectoral cooperation has been a major factor in the lack of effective control efforts. A shift in global focus is required to concentrate on the fact that rabies has the highest case fatality ratio of all infectious human diseases and that it still affects human health more significantly than many other infectious diseases that are perceived to pose more significant risks. Equally necessary is an acknowledgement that rabies control is complex and that the task of creating and executing a strategic plan for the disease can be overwhelming for those governments in the developing world where dog rabies is most problematic. Nonprofit organisations operate independently of governments and intergovernmental organisations and can play a dynamic role in inter-sectoral collaboration and the creation of approaches and strategies for the control of complex diseases such as rabies. In 2008, the Global Alliance for Rabies Control (GARC) established Partners for Rabies Prevention (PRP), a widely representative group of rabies stakeholders and experts, which endeavours to support public-private rabies control activities throughout the world. After a landscape analysis, the PRP proceeded to develop and launch the Blueprint for Rabies Prevention and Control (comprising the Blueprint for Canine Rabies Prevention and Control; the Blueprint for Fox Rabies Prevention and Control and the Rabies Surveillance Blueprint). Subsequently, the Stepwise Approach towards Rabies Elimination (SARE) was embedded into the Canine Rabies Blueprint. The SARE is a planning and self-assessment tool that countries can use to develop activities and monitor progress towards a national programme and strategy for sustainable rabies control and elimination. Each of the elements needed to execute the SARE-derived strategy is cross-linked to the Canine Rabies Blueprint, which provides the specific methods and tools required, supported by references and examples. Together, the Canine Rabies Blueprint and the SARE should be regarded as a novel and dynamic operational toolkit, and a resource that provides comprehensive information for the development and implementation of rabies control strategies, built entirely on the principles of 'One Health'.

Cela fait des dizaines d'années que la rage est une maladie négligée et que les efforts consacrés à la combattre à l'échelle mondiale sont insuffisants ; la maladie continue donc à sévir en plusieurs endroits de la planète en affectant surtout les communautés pauvres d'Afrique et d'Asie. La rage est une zoonose dont le principal réservoir et vecteur, le chien domestique (Canis familiaris), est une espèce ne présentant pas d'enjeu économique de sorte que c'est surtout l'absence de coopération intersectorielle qui est la principale cause du manque d'efficacité des activités de lutte. Il faut faire évoluer ces efforts à l'échelle mondiale à partir du constat que la rage est de toutes les maladies infectieuses humaines celle qui a le taux de létalité le plus élevé et que son impact sur la santé humaine reste supérieur à celui d'autres maladies infectieuses pourtant perçues comme présentant des risques plus significatifs. Il est tout aussi indispensable de prendre conscience du fait que la lutte contre la rage est une entreprise complexe et que la conception et l'exécution d'un plan stratégique contre cette maladie constituent des tâches écrasantes pour les gouvernements des pays en développement, où la rage canine pose le plus de problèmes. Les organisations à but non lucratif opérant indépendamment des gouvernements et des organisations intergouvernementales peuvent jouer un rôle pour dynamiser la collaboration intersectorielle et contribuer à la conception d'approches et de stratégies de lutte contre des maladies complexes telles que la rage. En 2008, l'Alliance mondiale contre la rage (GARC) a lancé l'initiative Partners for Rabies Prevention (PRP), un groupe formé d'un vaste éventail de parties prenantes et d'experts dans le domaine de la rage et ayant pour vocation de soutenir les activités relevant de partenariats public-privé pour lutter contre la rage partout dans le monde. Après une analyse globale de la situation, le partenariat a élaboré et mis en route le Plan directeur de prévention et de contrôle de la rage (doté de trois volets, à savoir les Plans directeurs pour la prévention et le contrôle de la rage canine et vulpine et le Plan directeur pour la surveillance de la rage). Par la suite, l'Approche raisonnée de l'élimination de la rage (SARE) a été intégrée au Plan directeur pour la prévention de la rage canine. SARE est un outil de planification et d'auto-évaluation mis à disposition des pays afin de les aider à concevoir leurs activités et à suivre les progrès enregistrés dans l'élaboration de leurs stratégies et programmes nationaux de lutte et d'élimination de la rage. Chaque élément opérationnel des stratégies élaborées sur la base de SARE est rattaché au Plan directeur pour la prévention et le contrôle de la rage canine, qui fournit les méthodes et les outils spécifiques nécessaires ainsi que des références et des exemples pertinents. Pris ensemble, le Plan directeur et SARE sont à envisager à la fois comme une boîte à outils opérationnelle innovante et dynamique et comme une base d'informations exhaustives pour l'élaboration et la mise en oeuvre de stratégies de lutte contre la rage, entièrement conçues dans une perspective « Une seule santé ¼.

La lucha antirrábica a escala mundial lleva muchos decenios de inadaptación y de relegación a un segundo plano, mientras la enfermedad sigue afectando principalmente a las comunidades pobres de África y Asia. Tratándose de una zoonosis cuyo principal reservorio y vector, el perro doméstico (Canis familiaris), es una especie económicamente inviable, la falta de cooperación intersectorial es uno de los principales factores que explican la ausencia de medidas de control eficaces. Es imperativo imprimir un giro a las líneas de trabajo mundiales para empezar a tener en cuenta que la rabia presenta la tasa de letalidad más alta de todas las enfermedades infecciosas del ser humano y que sigue afectando a la salud humana en mayor medida que otras muchas infecciones consideradas en cambio más peligrosas. También hay que tomar conciencia de que la lucha contra la rabia es compleja y de que los gobiernos de los países en desarrollo, donde la rabia es más problemática, a veces se ven superados por la titánica empresa de elaborar y aplicar un plan estratégico en la materia. Las organizaciones sin ánimo de lucro, que trabajan independientemente de gobiernos y organizaciones intergubernamentales, pueden cumplir una función dinámica de cara a la colaboración intersectorial y la creación de métodos y procedimientos de lucha contra enfermedades complejas como la rabia. Así, en 2008, la Alianza Mundial de Lucha contra la Rabia (GARC) estableció «Partners for Rabies Prevention¼ (PRP), amplio grupo representativo de los círculos de especialistas y otros interlocutores relacionados con la rabia que se dedica a respaldar en todo el mundo actividades de lucha antirrábica que federan a los sectores público y privado. Tras un análisis de la situación general, PRP procedió a elaborar y poner en práctica el «Plan maestro [Blueprint] de prevención y control de la rabia¼ (que a su vez se declina en un plan maestro de prevención y control de la rabia canina; un plan maestro de prevención y control de la rabia vulpina; y un plan maestro de vigilancia antirrábica). Ulteriormente, al plan maestro contra la rabia canina se le incorporó el «método progresivo para la eliminación de la rabia¼ (SARE, por sus siglas en inglés). El SARE es una herramienta de planificación y autoevaluación que los países pueden emplear para definir actividades y seguir de cerca la progresión hacia un programa y una estrategia nacionales de control y eliminación sostenibles de la rabia. Cada uno de los elementos necesarios para ejecutar la estrategia que se deriva del SARE guarda vínculos cruzados con el plan maestro contra la rabia canina, en el que se facilitan los métodos e instrumentos específicos necesarios, acompañados de referencias y ejemplos. El plan maestro contra la rabia canina y el SARE deben ser vistos conjuntamente como una novedosa y dinámica «caja de herramientas prácticas¼ y una fuente de información completa para definir y aplicar estrategias de lucha antirrábica, asentadas ambas por entero en los principios de «Una sola salud¼.

Awareness of rabies prevention and control measures among public health workers in Northern Vietnam.

OBJECTIVES: To assess and compare rabies related knowledge and awareness of public health workers at provincial and district levels in the seven provinces with the highest number of deaths from human rabies in northern Vietnam. STUDY DESIGN: A cross-sectional study. METHOD: A survey was administered to a convenience sample of public health workers attending four workshops on rabies disease, control and prevention between 16 October and 21 November, 2012. Total knowledge scores (maximum 38 points) were categorized into: 'high' (>30 points) 'moderate' (21-30) and 'low' (<21). The Chi-square test was used to evaluate the statistical significance of the differences in responses between the respondents. RESULTS: Of the 105 public health workers attending the workshops: 57% were male; 76% worked at the district level compared with 24% who worked at provincial level; and 45% had worked in rabies control for <1 year compared with 11% who had worked in rabies control for >5 years. Overall knowledge was patchy and ranked as 'moderate'. Important gaps in knowledge were identified particularly in relation to indications for rabies vaccine and rabies immunoglobulin, and routes of exposure to rabies virus. One in ten respondents did not know that rabies virus could be transmitted by the bite of an infected animal. When examining the overall mean knowledge scores, marginally significant differences were identified. The average scores for district level health workers (DLHW) and provincial level health workers (PLHW) were 28 ± 3 and 29 ± 3 points respectively (p = 0.098), which fell within the study definition of 'moderate' knowledge. In contrast, when 'high' knowledge scores were compared, a significantly greater proportion of PLHW achieved >30 points compared to DLHW (44.0% vs 22.5%, p = 0.044). CONCLUSIONS: Important gaps in knowledge and awareness of public health workers were identified particularly in relation to routes of exposure to rabies virus and indications for rabies vaccine and rabies immunoglobulin. Overall, comparison of knowledge scores revealed significant differences between district and provincial public health workers. The results obtained suggest that in order for rabies control programmes to succeed public health workers at all levels need to have accurate and evidence-based knowledge. This may be facilitated by improving the quantity and quality of their training and education.

Implementation and monitoring of oral rabies vaccination of foxes in Kosovo between 2010 and 2013--an international and intersectorial effort.

The European Union has used instrument for pre-accession (IPA) funds to provide technical assistance and supplies for the eradication, monitoring and control of rabies in several pre-accession countries. As a result, since 2010, multi-annual oral rabies vaccination (ORV) programmes for eliminating fox rabies have been launched in six Western Balkan countries. Here the implementation of the ORV programme in Kosovo, the smallest of the West Balkan countries, is described. Associated challenges under difficult political conditions, potential biases, and the results of rabies surveillance and monitoring of ORV campaigns (bait uptake and immunisation rates) since 2010 are reported.

Rabies control in Ghana: Stakeholders interventions, challenges and opportunities.

Background: Rabies remains a significant public health issue in Ghana, predominantly affecting rural communities with limited access to health care and veterinary services. The disease is primarily transmitted through bites from infected domestic dogs and leads to many deaths worldwide each year. Despite various interventions, Ghana continues to struggle with rabies control and prevention. This narrative paper focuses on rabies control in Ghana, examining stakeholders' interventions, challenges faced, and opportunities available. Methods: The paper reviews existing rabies control measures in Ghana, including dog vaccination efforts and One Health strategies. It also discusses the limitations of these interventions, such as minimal vaccination coverage, weak surveillance, and inadequate intersectoral coordination. Results: Ghana has implemented dog vaccination campaigns, but coverage remains minimal. Additionally, weak disease surveillance, cultural perceptions, and inadequate coordination across sectors have hampered the country's ability to control rabies effectively. Conclusion: Adopting One Health principles, which integrate human, animal, and environmental health efforts, is emphasized as a critical strategy to eliminate rabies in Ghana by 2030. By addressing these challenges and leveraging available opportunities, Ghana can strengthen its rabies control programs and work toward a rabies-free future.

Assessing the Efficiency of Local Rabies Vaccination Strategies for Raccoons (Procyon lotor) in an Urban Setting.

Raccoon rabies virus (RRV) has been managed using multiple vaccination strategies, including oral rabies vaccination and trap-vaccinate-release (TVR). Identifying a rabies vaccination strategy for an area is a nontrivial task. Vaccination strategies differ in the amount of effort and monetary costs required to achieve a particular level of vaccine seroprevalence (efficiency). Simulating host movement relative to different vaccination strategies in silico can provide a useful tool for exploring the efficiency of different vaccination strategies. We refined a previously developed individual-based model of raccoon movement to evaluate vaccination strategies for urban Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. We combined different oral rabies vaccination baiting (hand baiting, helicopter, and bait stations) with TVR strategies and used GPS data to parameterize and simulate raccoon movement in Hamilton. We developed a total of 560 vaccination strategies, in consultation with the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, for RRV control in Hamilton. We documented the monetary costs of each vaccination strategy and estimated the population seroprevalence. Intervention costs and seroprevalence estimates were used to calculate the efficiency of each strategy to meet targets set for the purpose of RRV control. Estimated seroprevalence across different strategies varied widely, ranging from less than 5% to more than 70%. Increasing bait densities (distributed using by hand or helicopter) led to negligible increase in seroprevalence. Helicopter baiting was the most efficient and TVR was the least efficient, but helicopter-based strategies led to lower levels of seroprevalence (6-12%) than did TVR-based strategies (17-70%). Our simulations indicated that a mixed strategy including at least some TVR may be the most efficient strategy for a local urban RRV control program when seroprevalence levels >30% may be required. Our simulations provide information regarding the efficiency of different vaccination strategies for raccoon populations, to guide local RRV control in urban settings.

Cat rabies in Brazil: a growing One Health concern.

This review of human and cat rabies from 1986 to 2022 has shown mostly AgV3 variant in human cases with 29/45 (64.4%) reports including 23 from bats, four from cats, and two from unknown species, followed by 8/45 (17.8%) of AgV2 variant (all from dogs), 4/45 from marmoset variant (all from Callithrix jacchus), 2/45 samples compatible with wild canid variant (both from Cerdocyon thous), and one/45 of AgV1 variant from a domestic dog. Only one sample of human rabies was not typified, related to bat aggression. In addition, surveillance conducted in the state of São Paulo confirmed the presence of rabies in 7/23,839 cats (0.031%) and 3/106,637 dogs (0.003%) between 2003 and 2013, with a 10:1 overall cat-to-dog positivity ratio. This 10-fold higher infection rate for cat rabies may be explained by cats' hunting habits and predation. In addition, after 28 years of rabies-free status, a new cat rabies case was reported in the city of São Paulo in 2011. The rabid cat lived, along with other pets, in a household located near the largest downtown city park, whose owners presented animal hoarding behavior. Thus, animal hoarders and rescuers, public health agents, animal health professionals, and the general population with contact need to be aware of the risk of bat-borne rabies followed by spillover from cats to humans. In conclusion, cat rabies cases are becoming increasingly important in Brazil. This poses a One Health concern, given the overlapping of human, bat and cat populations within the same predisposed environment.

Using causal loop analysis to explore pathways for zoonosis control in low-income setting: The case of dog rabies vaccination in Burkina Faso.

Dog vaccination is an effective pathway to control rabies if a minimum of 70% dog vaccination coverage is achieved. For more than six decades, dog vaccination has been adopted as part of the rabies control measures in Burkina Faso. However, the required vaccination coverage in canine population remains challenging and rabies endemic. This study describes the use of systems thinking to explore the dynamics arising from dog vaccination complexity and explain the possibles causes of low vaccination coverage in the dog population. In-depth interviews were conducted in three administrative regions and included various stakeholders. A thematic analysis was performed to analyze the obtained narratives. Subsequently, causal loop diagrams (CLDs) were developed, depicting the causes of low dog vaccination coverage. The CLDs were composed of reinforcing loops and balancing loops, visualizing how different variables including social, economic, technical, political and organizational factors that affect the implementation of rabies vaccination in the country are causally interrelated. Overall, the results revealed the importance of community awareness raising, strengthening the vaccination workforce, enhanced governance and leadership in the dynamics of dog vaccination. The study calls for wide consideration of all drivers and factors that may affect dog vaccination coverage, for the development of any rabies control strategy or vaccination program. Beyond the dog vaccination problem, the methods and findings from this study could be applied to other critical rabies-related questions such as postexposure prophylaxis, epidemiological surveillance, dog population management, laboratory diagnosis, and the One Health collaboration issues, to understand and improve rabies control.

Review of Oral Rabies Vaccination of Dogs and Its Application in India.

Oral rabies vaccines (ORVs) have been in use to successfully control rabies in wildlife since 1978 across Europe and the USA. This review focuses on the potential and need for the use of ORVs in free-roaming dogs to control dog-transmitted rabies in India. Iterative work to improve ORVs over the past four decades has resulted in vaccines that have high safety profiles whilst generating a consistent protective immune response to the rabies virus. The available evidence for safety and efficacy of modern ORVs in dogs and the broad and outspoken support from prominent global public health institutions for their use provides confidence to national authorities considering their use in rabies-endemic regions. India is estimated to have the largest rabies burden of any country and, whilst considerable progress has been made to increase access to human rabies prophylaxis, examples of high-output mass dog vaccination campaigns to eliminate the virus at the source remain limited. Efficiently accessing a large proportion of the dog population through parenteral methods is a considerable challenge due to the large, evasive stray dog population in many settings. Existing parenteral approaches require large skilled dog-catching teams to reach these dogs, which present financial, operational and logistical limitations to achieve 70% dog vaccination coverage in urban settings in a short duration. ORV presents the potential to accelerate the development of approaches to eliminate rabies across large areas of the South Asia region. Here we review the use of ORVs in wildlife and dogs, with specific consideration of the India setting. We also present the results of a risk analysis for a hypothetical campaign using ORV for the vaccination of dogs in an Indian state.

COVID-19 and zoonoses in Brazil: Environmental scan of one health preparedness and response.

The emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic reinforced the central role of the One Health (OH) approach, as a multisectoral and multidisciplinary perspective, to tackle health threats at the human-animal-environment interface. This study assessed Brazilian preparedness and response to COVID-19 and zoonoses with a focus on the OH approach and equity dimensions. We conducted an environmental scan using a protocol developed as part of a multi-country study. The article selection process resulted in 45 documents: 79 files and 112 references on OH; 41 files and 81 references on equity. The OH and equity aspects are poorly represented in the official documents regarding the COVID-19 response, either at the federal and state levels. Brazil has a governance infrastructure that allows for the response to infectious diseases, including zoonoses, as well as the fight against antimicrobial resistance through the OH approach. However, the response to the pandemic did not fully utilize the resources of the Brazilian state, due to the lack of central coordination and articulation among the sectors involved. Brazil is considered an area of high risk for emergence of zoonoses mainly due to climate change, large-scale deforestation and urbanization, high wildlife biodiversity, wide dry frontier, and poor control of wild animals' traffic. Therefore, encouraging existing mechanisms for collaboration across sectors and disciplines, with the inclusion of vulnerable populations, is required for making a multisectoral OH approach successful in the country.

The Role of Waste Management in Control of Rabies: A Neglected Issue.

Despite being vaccine preventable, the global burden of dog rabies remains significant, and historically it is the rural and marginalized communities in developing countries of Africa and Asia that are most threatened by the disease. In recent years, the developing world has been experiencing unprecedented increases in urbanization, with a correspondingly massive increase in municipal solid waste generation, among other things. Inefficient and inadequate waste collection and management, due to lack of resources and planning, led to significant increases in the volumes of waste on the streets and in open dumps, where it serves as food sources for free-roaming dogs. In this commentary, we discuss examples of poor waste management and the likely impact on rabies control efforts through the sustenance of free-roaming dogs in some dog rabies-endemic countries. We aim to stress the importance of implementing strategies that effectively address this particular issue as an important component of humane dog population management, as it relates to aspirations for the control and elimination of dog rabies per se.

Barriers and opportunities for canine rabies vaccination campaigns in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Canine rabies is endemic in Ethiopia and presents a significant burden for both animal and human health. We investigate barriers to dog vaccination in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. These results can be utilized to improve and target future rabies control efforts. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPLE FINDINGS: During May of 2017, dog owners were surveyed during a free canine rabies vaccination programs that utilized both door-to-door (DtD) and central point (CP) vaccination methods. Surveys collected information on preferences for rabies vaccine delivery and were administered in Amharic. A total of 1057 surveys were completed. Of those surveyed, 62.4 % indicated that their dogs had been vaccinated against rabies within the last year. Commonly reported barriers to vaccination were a lack of awareness that dogs required rabies vaccines (18.1 %) and lack of knowledge about where to find vaccine (15.0 %). The median price owners were willing to pay for vaccination was 25 birr ($0.91 USD) and the median distance willing to travel was 1.0 km; however, 48.9 % of those surveyed during DtD were unwilling to travel at all. We identified 3 classes of respondents who were grouped due to their responses by latent class analysis: 'the Unaware', 'the Vaccinators', and 'the Multiple Barriers'. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Although many respondents were willing to pay for rabies vaccine (94.0 %); the preferred cost (median) was less than the actual cost of providing the vaccine. This supports the need for reduced-cost or free vaccine to achieve and sustain the 70 % vaccine coverage target threshold for canine rabies elimination. Additionally, a significant portion (41.5 %) of those surveyed indicated that they were unwilling to travel in order to have their dog vaccinated. The latent class analysis provides useful guidance on how to reach target vaccination. Owners from 'the Unaware' group made up 18.1 % of respondents and their high rate of allowing their dogs to roam identifies them as a prime target for canine health and behavior education. 'The Multiple Barriers' owners reported lower degrees of dog roaming and were substantially more likely to be found by DtD campaigns, possibly because they have limited ability/interest in handling their dogs. These results demonstrate the importance of incorporating DtD vaccination as well as subsidies to maximize vaccine coverage in Addis Ababa.

Assessing factors associated with owner's individual decision to vaccinate their dogs against rabies: A house-to-house survey in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: In rabies endemic area, dog vaccination is an effective way of controlling the disease in animals and humans if a minimum of 70% vaccination coverage is reached. This study aimed to identify dog demographics and household characteristics associated with dogs' vaccination against rabies in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A questionnaire was used to collect data from respondents with regard to their dogs' demographics and their household characteristics. Chi-square test and Fisher's exact test were performed to assess the association between explicative variables and the dogs' vaccination status. RESULTS: Overall, as per the findings of this study, it was determined that out of 424 dogs, 57.8% were reportedly vaccinated. The vaccination status was significantly associated with most of the household variables (e.g., gender of the respondent, age, level of education, main means of transportation, participation in a vaccination campaign, knowledge on rabies, and knowledge on dog vaccination) and the dogs' variables (breed of dog, dog origin, purpose for keeping, confinement status, and perceived behavior) (p<0.05). Moreover, only religion, type of housing, knowledge of rabies transmission modes, and dog sex were not significantly associated with vaccination status (p>0.05). CONCLUSION: Our study generated informative data showing that animal health workers could develop effective rabies vaccination strategy planning by examining owned dog demographics and their husbandry practices in households.

Factors associated with owned-dogs' vaccination against rabies: A household survey in Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso.

Canine vaccination is an effective means for rabies control, a minimum of 70% dog rabies vaccination coverage is required in endemic areas. According to previous investigations, this recommended coverage is always not achieved in Burkina Faso. This study was carried out to investigate reasons for poor vaccination coverage in canine population. Using a structured questionnaires, a cross-sectional survey was conducted in the city of Bobo Dioulasso to capture data on drivers that affect dog owners' individual decision to vaccinate or not their dogs. Through a house-to-house approach, 239 questionnaires were administrated to dog owners during face to face interviews. The results indicated dog rabies vaccination coverage of 25.9%. Dog breed, origin and confinement status had a significant association with vaccination status (p < 0.05). Owners of exotic and cross-bred dogs were more likely to adopt vaccination compared to owners of local-bred dogs. Dogs of bought origin were significantly more likely to be vaccinated among all dogs. Household characteristics including age of owners, level of education, employment status, means of transportation, perception of vaccination cost and level of knowledge about rabies were significantly associated with the vaccination status (p < 0.05). The oldest dog owners, the owners having high level of education, having a car as means of transportation, having good knowledge of rabies and dog rabies vaccination, being employed and perceiving vaccination cost as affordable were more likely to vaccinate their dogs. Combining community awareness and free dog rabies vaccination approaches could improve the vaccination coverage.

[Dog license taxes and tags]. / Hundesteuern und Hundemarken.

INTRODUCTION: Based on a donation of more than 1000 Swiss dog license tags to the museum of veterinary medical history in Zurich, historic dog license taxes and tags are compared between Switzerland and other European countries. In 2006 the microchip was launched as mandatory identification for dogs in Switzerland and dog license tags became redundant.

INTRODUCTION: Dans le cadre du don d'une collection de plus de 1000 médailles d'identité suisses pour chiens au Musée d'histoire de la médecine vétérinaire de Zurich, le sujet des taxes et médailles pour chiens est étudié en Suisse et comparé à d'autres pays européens. Avec l'introduction de l'identification des chiens au moyen d'une puce électronique en 2006, il n'était plus nécessaire de remettre ces médailles.

The one health landscape in Sub-Saharan African countries.

OBJECTIVES: One Health is transiting from multidisciplinary to transdisciplinary concepts and its viewpoints should move from 'proxy for zoonoses', to include other topics (climate change, nutrition and food safety, policy and planning, welfare and well-being, antimicrobial resistance (AMR), vector-borne diseases, toxicosis and pesticides issues) and thematic fields (social sciences, geography and economics). This work was conducted to map the One Health landscape in Africa. METHODS: An assessment of existing One Health initiatives in Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries was conducted among selected stakeholders using a multi-method approach. Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats to One Health initiatives were identified, and their influence, interest and impacts were semi-quantitatively evaluated using literature reviews, questionnaire survey and statistical analysis. RESULTS: One Health Networks and identified initiatives were spatiotemporally spread across SSA and identified stakeholders were classified into four quadrants. It was observed that imbalance in stakeholders' representations led to hesitation in buying-in into One Health approach by stakeholders who are outside the main networks like stakeholders from the policy, budgeting, geography and sometimes, the environment sectors. CONCLUSION: Inclusion of theory of change, monitoring and evaluation frameworks, and tools for standardized evaluation of One Health policies are needed for a sustained future of One Health and future engagements should be outputs- and outcomes-driven and not activity-driven. National roadmaps for One Health implementation and institutionalization are necessary, and proofs of concepts in One Health should be validated and scaled-up. Dependence on external funding is unsustainable and must be addressed in the medium to long-term. Necessary policy and legal instruments to support One Health nationally and sub-nationally should be implemented taking cognizance of contemporary issues like urbanization, endemic poverty and other emerging issues. The utilization of current technologies and One Health approach in addressing the ongoing pandemic of COVID-19 and other emerging diseases are desirable. Finally, One Health implementation should be anticipatory and preemptive, and not reactive in containing disease outbreaks, especially those from the animal sources or the environment before the risk of spillover to human.

Controlling Human Rabies: The Development of an Effective, Inexpensive and Locally Made Passive Cooling Device for Storing Thermotolerant Animal Rabies Vaccines.

Thermotolerant vaccines greatly improved the reach and impact of large-scale vaccination programs to eliminate diseases such as smallpox, polio and rinderpest. A recent study demonstrated that the potency of the Nobivac® Canine Rabies vaccine was not impacted following experimental storage at 30 °C for three months. We conducted a study to develop a passive cooling device (PCD) that could store thermotolerant vaccines under fluctuating subambient temperatures. Through a participatory process with local communities in Northern Tanzania, we developed innovative PCD designs for local manufacture. A series of field experiments were then carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of five PCDs for vaccine storage under varying climatic conditions. Following iterative improvement, a final prototype "Zeepot Clay" was developed at the cost of US$11 per unit. During a further field-testing phase over a 12-month period, the internal temperature of the device remained below 26 °C, despite ambient temperatures exceeding 42 °C. Our study thus demonstrated that locally designed PCDs have utility for storing thermotolerant rabies vaccines at subambient temperatures. These results have application for the scaling up of mass dog vaccination programs in low-and-middle income countries, particularly for hard-to-reach populations with limited access to power and cold-chain vaccine storage.