A comparison of individual and group equivalence-based instruction delivered via Canvas.

Equivalence-based instruction (EBI) is an efficient method that has been used to teach various skills, including content in college courses. This study extended the literature on EBI in higher education by teaching 13 graduate students to identify features of functional analysis conditions and variations. Equivalence-based instruction methods were implemented using Canvas, an online learning management system. Participants completed pretests, experienced EBI individually and in small groups, and completed a posttest, all using the quiz feature in Canvas. The EBI modules increased students' posttest scores relative to pretest scores by 36%, on average, and there was a slight increase in correct responding in the group relative to the individual teaching condition. Furthermore, responses to social-validity surveys indicated that EBI was acceptable to most students; however, students' preferences for group and individual EBI varied.

Effects of omission and commission errors during tact instruction.

The purpose of the current study was to compare the effects of omission and commission errors of reinforcement during tact instruction via telehealth with three children, 6 to 7 years of age, who were diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder. We used an adapted alternating treatment design to evaluate skill acquisition of target stimuli across high-integrity, commission errors, and omission errors conditions. The high-integrity condition produced mastery criteria in fewer sessions compared with the integrity-error conditions in four of six comparisons, and the omission condition reached mastery criteria in fewer sessions than the commission condition in five of six comparisons.

Evaluation of Lag Schedules and Rules on Persistent Response Variability With Preschoolers in a Group.

In the present study, experimenters evaluated the influence of lag schedules of reinforcement in combination with accurate and inaccurate (complete and incomplete) rules on the response variability of naming category items for typically developing preschoolers in a group format. Results showed that when lag schedules were introduced with 2 categories, response variability generalized to the third category. Furthermore, after participants experienced the lag schedule, variability persisted when the contingency no longer required variability. Participants continued to vary their responses unless the rule and contingency required them to repeat responses. We discuss potential clinical applications of using lag schedules in a group format and including rules during teaching, as well as directions for future research in this area.

Teaching Children With Autism to Initiate Social Interactions Using Textual Prompts Delivered via Apple Watches®.

Children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often engage in low levels of peer social interactions; therefore, we often need to explicitly teach these skills. In the current study, we implemented a combined tactile and textual prompt, delivered via a text message sent to an Apple Watch®, to prompt social initiations from children with ASD to peers during free play. Results showed that the text message prompts increased the frequency of independent social initiations for both participants. Furthermore, 1 participant continued to emit high levels of independent social initiations during a 1-month follow-up with no prompts.

Stimulus presentation versus stimulus removal in the Good Behavior Game.

The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is an effective intervention to reduce disruptive behavior. The GBG typically involves immediate stimulus presentation (e.g.., delivery of a token) following disruptions; however, experimenters have also removed tokens contingent upon disruptions. In the present study, we compared the effects of the GBG-stimulus presentation (P) and GBG-stimulus removal (R) on levels of disruptions in a 2nd-grade general education classroom. In addition, we measured student prompts, teacher praise and correctives, and student and teacher preference. The GBG-P and GBG-R versions of the game were similarly effective in reducing disruptions. However, the teacher chose to implement the GBG-R and the majority of students reported a preference for the GBG-R.

Evaluating adult interaction during the Step It UP! game to increase physical activity in children.

A recent intervention, the Step it UP! game (Galbraith & Normand, 2017), consists of an interdependent group contingency to increase student physical activity. In addition, previous research demonstrated that adult interaction may reinforce physical activity (Larson et al., 2014). We extended research on the Step it UP! game by comparing the effects of no game, Step it UP! game, and Step it UP! game plus adult interaction on the number of steps taken by participants in a third-grade classroom during recess. Overall, 19 of the 25 participants took more steps during the Step it UP! game plus adult interaction compared to the Step it UP! game and no-game recesses. Furthermore, 20 participants preferred the Step it UP! game plus adult interaction. Results suggest that adult interaction can enhance the effects of the Step it UP! game to increase physical activity.

A comparison of methods to teach foreign-language targets to young children.

Using instructional strategies based on derived relational responding (DRR) to teach foreign-language targets may result in emergent, untrained foreign-language relations. One benefit of using DRR instructional strategies is the efficiency with which an individual acquires additional stimulus relations as a result of emergent responding following acquisition of one or a small number of relations. In the current study, we compared the efficiency of tact training alone to a traditional foreign-language teaching strategy (i.e., teaching all relations concurrently-mixed training) with four, 4-year-old children. The results demonstrated that tact training was more efficient than mixed training for 5 of 7 stimulus sets. The findings add to the research demonstrating that DRR instructional strategies, specifically tact training, may be more efficient than concurrently teaching all targeted relations.

Comparison of contingent and noncontingent access to therapy dogs during academic tasks in children with autism spectrum disorder.

This study compared contingent and noncontingent access to therapy dogs during educational tasks for children with autism spectrum disorder using a multielement design. The experimenters assessed whether initial preference for the dog predicted reinforcer efficacy and how preference changed across time. A higher response rate during contingent dog sessions than baseline sessions occurred for 4 out of 5 participants, suggesting that the dog functioned as a reinforcer. One participant engaged in a high rate of responding in both contingent and noncontingent dog conditions. Preference assessments revealed idiosyncrasies, suggesting that further research is needed into the predictive nature of initial preference assessments with animals as part of the stimulus array. The experimenters also analyzed salivary cortisol before and after sessions to determine if learning about the upcoming interaction with a dog reduced salivary cortisol in children. Cortisol was variable across participants, with only some deriving a potential physiological benefit from expecting to interact with the dog.

The Good Behavior Game in preschool classrooms: An evaluation of feedback.

The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is a popular group contingency implemented to decrease disruptive behavior in classrooms. However, despite numerous replications of the GBG, there are few direct comparisons evaluating the effectiveness of specific components of the GBG. In the present study, we directly compared the type of feedback delivered during the GBG on the effectiveness of the GBG to reduce disruptive behavior in two preschool classrooms. Results showed that delivering vocal feedback (e.g., "raise your hand") alone or in combination with visual feedback (i.e., hatch marks) was superior to no feedback or visual feedback alone during the GBG. These results suggest that different variations of the GBG are not equally effective and that a collection of effective procedural variations from which teachers can choose would be beneficial.

Feasibility of and teacher preference for student-led implementation of the good behavior game in early elementary classrooms.

The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is a classwide group contingency shown to reduce disruptive student behavior. We examined the feasibility of training young students to lead the GBG in one first-grade and three kindergarten classes. We also examined teacher preference for teacher-led GBG, student-led GBG, or no GBG using a concurrent chains procedure. We successfully trained students in all classes to lead the GBG, and the GBG reduced disruptive behavior regardless of who implemented it. Preference for who implemented the game varied across teachers. Results of this study suggest that students as young as kindergarten age can be trained to implement the GBG and that teacher preference should be taken into account when determining how classwide interventions are to be implemented.

An evaluation of lag schedules and prompting methods to increase variability of naming category items in children with autism spectrum disorder.

A lag schedule of reinforcement is one way to increase response variability; however, previous research has been mixed with regard to the necessary parameters to increase variability. For some individuals, low schedule requirements (e.g., Lag 1) are sufficient to increase variability. For other individuals, higher lag schedules (e.g., Lag 3) or a lag schedule in combination with prompting is needed to increase variability. We evaluated the efficiency of different within-session progressive lag schedules to increase response variability with 2 children with autism. Results showed that increasing the lag criterion across sessions increased variability to levels similar to beginning with a high lag schedule for one participant. When lag schedules did not increase variability for the second participant, we compared a variety of prompting procedures. Results of the prompting evaluation showed that a tact-priming procedure was effective to increase varied responding.

Evaluation of a lag schedule of reinforcement in a group contingency to promote varied naming of categories items with children.

We compared the effects of Lag 0 and Lag 1 schedules of reinforcement on children's responses naming category items in a group context and subsequent responses emitted during individual testing in which the schedule of reinforcement remained Lag 0. Specifically, we measured response variability and novel responses to categories for 3 children who demonstrated the lowest level of variability during an initial individual Lag 0 testing session. An additional 3 children who emitted a high level of variability during initial individual Lag 0 testing sessions served as peers during group sessions. Results showed that participants conformed to the Lag 1 schedule and were more likely to repeat peer responses in the group and during individual testing in the Lag 1 condition. Furthermore, the reinforcement schedule in effect during group sessions affected participants' varied responses during individual testing, during which the reinforcement schedule remained unchanged.

Immediate and distal effects of the good behavior game.

The Good Behavior Game (GBG) has been demonstrated to reduce disruptive student behavior during implementation. The effects of playing the GBG on disruption immediately before and after the GBG are unknown. The current study evaluated the effects of the GBG on disruption in 5 kindergarten classes immediately before, during, and after GBG implementation. The GBG reduced disruption during implementation but did not affect rates of disruption during activity periods that preceded or followed the GBG.

The safety of functional analyses of self-injurious behavior.

Functional analysis is the most precise method of identifying variables that maintain self-injurious behavior (SIB), and its use may lead to more effective treatment. One criticism and potential limitation of a functional analysis is that it may unnecessarily expose individuals to a higher risk of injury (Betz & Fisher, 2011). The purpose of this study was to determine if there were higher levels and severity of injury during the functional analysis than outside the functional analysis. We conducted a retrospective records review of 99 participants admitted to an inpatient unit for the treatment of SIB. The results showed that injury rates were relatively low across all situations and that when injuries occurred, they were usually not severe. These findings suggest that the functional analysis of SIB is relatively safe when appropriate precautions are taken.

The effects of awareness training on tics in a young boy with Tourette syndrome, Asperger syndrome, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Previous research has shown habit reversal training (HRT) to be effective in reducing tics. In some studies, tics have been reduced by implementing only a few components of HRT. The current study investigated the first step, awareness training, for treating tics in a young boy with Asperger syndrome, Tourette syndrome, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The results showed a reduction in all tics.