Amplification of avian influenza virus circulation along poultry marketing chains in Bangladesh: A controlled field experiment.

The prevalence of avian influenza viruses is commonly found to increase dramatically as birds are transported from farms to live bird markets. Viral transmission dynamics along marketing chains are, however, poorly understood. To address this gap, we implemented a controlled field experiment altering chicken supply to a live bird market in Chattogram, Bangladesh. Broilers and backyard chickens traded along altered (intervention) and conventional (control) marketing chains were tested for avian influenza viruses at different time points. Upon arrival at the live bird market, the odds of detecting avian influenza viruses did not differ between control and intervention groups. However, 12 h later, intervention group odds were lower, particularly for broilers, indicating that viral shedding in live bird markets resulted partly from infections occurring during transport and trade. Curtailing avian influenza virus prevalence in live bird markets requires mitigating risk in marketing chain nodes preceding chickens' delivery at live bird markets.

H9N2 influenza A viruses found to be enzootic in Punjab Pakistan's bird markets with evidence of human H9N2 nasal colonization.

OBJECTIVES: This study sought to detect and characterize influenza A (IAV) and influenza D (IDV) viruses circulating among commercial birds and shop owners in Pakistan's live bird markets. METHODS: Oropharyngeal swabs (n = 600; n = 300 pools) collected from poultry and nasopharyngeal swabs (n = 240) collected from poultry workers were studied for molecular evidence of IAV and IDV using real-time and conventional real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction protocols. RESULTS: Nineteen (6.3%) poultry pools were positive for IAV and 73.9% of these were positive for H9N2 subtypes. Two (0.83%) poultry workers had evidence of IAV, and both were also H9N2 subtypes. The poultry and human IAV-positive specimens all clustered phylogenetically by Sanger and next-generation sequencing with previously detected H9N2 poultry isolates. No field specimens were positive for IDV. CONCLUSION: H9N2 IAV is likely enzootic in Punjab Province Pakistan's live bird markets and may be colonizing the noses of workers and market visitors. Regular monitoring for avian influenza-associated human illness in Punjab seems to be a needed public measure.

Phylogenetic Analysis of Newcastle Disease Virus Isolated from Poultry in Live Bird Markets and Wild Waterfowl in Zambia.

Poultry production is essential to the economy and livelihood of many rural Zambian households. However, the industry is threatened by infectious diseases, particularly Newcastle disease virus (NDV) infection. Therefore, this study employed next-generation sequencing to characterise six NDV isolates from poultry in Zambia's live bird markets (LBMs) and wild waterfowl. Four NDV isolates were detected from 410 faecal samples collected from chickens in LBMs in Lusaka and two from 2851 wild birds from Lochinvar National Park. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the four NDVs from LBM clustered in genotype VII and sub-genotype VII.2 were closely related to viruses previously isolated in Zambia and other Southern African countries, suggesting possible local and regional transboundary circulation of the virus. In contrast, the two isolates from wild birds belonged to class I viruses, genotype 1, and were closely related to isolates from Europe and Asia, suggesting the possible introduction of these viruses from Eurasia, likely through wild bird migration. The fusion gene cleavage site motif for all LBM-associated isolates was 112RRQKR|F117, indicating that the viruses are virulent, while the isolates from wild waterfowl had the typical 112ERQER|L117 avirulent motif. This study demonstrates the circulation of virulent NDV strains in LBMs and has, for the first time, characterised NDV from wild birds in Zambia. The study further provides the first whole genomes of NDV sub-genotype VII.2 and genotype 1 from Zambia and stresses the importance of surveillance and molecular analysis for monitoring the circulation of NDV genotypes and viral evolution.

Development of a Novel Korean H9-Specific rRT-PCR Assay and Its Application for Avian Influenza Virus Surveillance in Korea.

Since the 2000s, the Y439 lineage of H9N2 avian influenza virus (AIV) has been the predominant strain circulating in poultry in Korea; however, in 2020, the Y280 lineage emerged and spread rapidly nationwide, causing large economic losses. To prevent further spread and circulation of such viruses, rapid detection and diagnosis through active surveillance programs are crucial. Here, we developed a novel H9 rRT-PCR assay that can detect a broad range of H9Nx viruses in situations in which multiple lineages of H9 AIVs are co-circulating. We then evaluated its efficacy using a large number of clinical samples. The assay, named the Uni Kor-H9 assay, showed high sensitivity for Y280 lineage viruses, as well as for the Y439 lineage originating in Korean poultry and wild birds. In addition, the assay showed no cross-reactivity with other subtypes of AIV or other avian pathogens. Furthermore, the Uni Kor-H9 assay was more sensitive, and had higher detection rates, than reference H9 rRT-PCR methods when tested against a panel of domestically isolated H9 AIVs. In conclusion, the novel Uni Kor-H9 assay enables more rapid and efficient diagnosis than the "traditional" method of virus isolation followed by subtyping RT-PCR. Application of the new H9 rRT-PCR assay to AI active surveillance programs will help to control and manage Korean H9 AIVs more efficiently.

Molecular characterization of Newcastle disease virus obtained from Mawenzi live bird market in Morogoro, Tanzania in 2020-2021.

Newcastle disease (ND) is among the most important poultry diseases worldwide. It is the major threat to poultry production in Africa and causes major economic losses for both local and commercial chickens. To date, half of ND class II genotypes have been reported in Africa (I, IV, V, VI, VII, XI, XIII, XIV, XVII, XVIII, and XXI). The information on the circulating NDV genotypes is still scarce despite the endemic nature of ND in most countries on the African continent.A total of 659 oro-cloacal swabs were collected from local chickens in Mawenzi live bird market located in Morogoro, Tanzania, between June 2020 and May 2021. Newcastle disease virus was detected by using reverse transcription real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and conventional PCR followed by sequencing of PCR products. The prevalence of NDV in the surveilled live bird markets was 23.5%. Sequencing and phylogenetic analysis revealed the presence of sub-genotype VII.2. The detected sub-genotype VII.2 has phylogenetic links to Zambian NDV strains implying a Southeast dissemination of the virus, considering that it was first detected in Mozambique. This study underscores the need of active NDV surveillance to determine the distribution of this NDV genotype in the country and monitor its spread and contribution to the emergence of new ND viruses.

Complete genome sequence of seven virulent Newcastle disease virus isolates of sub-genotype XIII.1.1 from Tanzania.

We report the complete genome sequences of seven virulent Newcastle disease viruses (NDVs) that were isolated from chickens from live bird markets in the Arusha, Iringa, Mbeya, and Tanga regions of Tanzania in 2012. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all isolates belong to sub-genotype XIII.1.1.

Influenza: Searching for Pandemic Origins.

From a farming family of 13 children in New Zealand, I graduated with a Master of Science degree in microbiology from the University of Otago (Dunedin, Otago, New Zealand). I established the first veterinary virology laboratory at Wallaceville Animal Research Station. I subsequently completed my PhD degree at Australian National University (Canberra, Australia) and a postdoctoral fellowship at the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor, Michigan). While in New South Wales, Australia, a walk on a beach littered with dead mutton birds (shearwaters) with Dr. Graeme Laver led to the surveillance of influenza in seabirds on the Great Barrier Reef Islands and my lifelong search for the origin of pandemic influenza viruses. Subsequent studies established that (a) aquatic birds are a natural reservoir of influenza A viruses, (b) these viruses replicate primarily in cells lining the intestinal tract, (c) reassortment in nature can lead to novel pandemic influenza viruses, and (d) live bird markets are one place where transmission of influenza virus from animals to humans occurs.

Interpretation of molecular detection of avian influenza A virus in respiratory specimens collected from live bird market workers in Dhaka, Bangladesh: infection or contamination?

OBJECTIVES: Interpreting real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) results for human avian influenza A virus (AIV) detection in contaminated settings like live bird markets (LBMs) without serology or viral culture poses a challenge. METHODS: During February-March 2012 and November 2012-February 2013, we screened workers at nine LBMs in Dhaka, Bangladesh, to confirm molecular detections of AIV RNA in respiratory specimens with serology. We tested nasopharyngeal (NP) and throat swabs from workers with influenza-like illness (ILI) and NP, throat, and arm swabs from asymptomatic workers for influenza virus by rRT-PCR and sera for seroconversion and antibodies against HPAI A(H5N1) and A(H9N2) viruses. RESULTS: Among 1273 ILI cases, 34 (2.6%) had A(H5), 56 (4%) had A(H9), and six (0.4%) had both A(H5) and A(H9) detected by rRT-PCR. Of 192 asymptomatic workers, A(H5) was detected in eight (4%) NP and 38 (20%) arm swabs. Of 28 ILI cases with A(H5) or A(H9) detected, none had evidence of seroconversion, but one (3.5%) and 12 (43%) were seropositive for A(H5) and A(H9), respectively. CONCLUSION: Detection of AIV RNA in respiratory specimens from symptomatic and asymptomatic LBM workers without evidence of seroconversion or virus isolation suggests environmental contamination, emphasizing caution in interpreting rRT-PCR results in high viral load settings.

Mapping of dressed and processed poultry products in Bangladesh: Identifying the food safety risks for policy intervention.

Bangladesh's commercial poultry production is growing rapidly, including the commercial processing of poultry. This expansion of poultry processing plants is fueled by the belief that this sub-sector provides safer food and has less food-borne disease risks compared to traditional live bird markets (LBMs). The purpose of this study is to describe Bangladesh's dressed and processed poultry production and distribution network (PDN), identify what and where quality control occurs, and suggest where improvements could be made. Engaging with PDN for dressed and processed poultry, we used in-depth interviews with key informants to identify the stakeholders involved and their connections with other poultry PDNs. In addition, we mapped out the supply and distribution of dressed and processed poultry and quality control processes occurring throughout the network. We argue that dressed and processed poultry PDNs are closely connected with traditional PDNs such as LBMs, with multiple crossover points between them. Also, there is a lack of consistency in quality control testing and a lack of meat traceability. Consequently, perceptions of dressed and processed poultry being safer than birds from LBMs needs to be treated with caution. Otherwise, unsubstantiated consumer confidence in dressed poultry may inadvertently increase the risk of food-borne diseases from these products.

Circulation of thermophilic Campylobacter in pigeons, turkeys, and humans at live bird markets in Egypt.

Live bird markets increase the risk of transmission of zoonotic diseases. Few studies have investigated the potential zoonotic transmission of Campylobacter in Egypt. Therefore, our study was carried out to investigate the presence of Campylobacter species, mainly Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni) and Campylobacter coli (C. coli), in pigeons and turkeys sold at poultry shops. Furthermore, the study aimed to explore the potential occupational risk of Campylobacter infection, mainly among workers at poultry shops. Six hundred (n = 600) samples from various organs were obtained from pigeons and turkeys from live bird shops in the Giza and Asyut provinces in Egypt. Additionally, 100 stool samples were collected from persons working at poultry shops. Circulation of thermophilic Campylobacter in pigeons, turkeys, and humans was investigated based on culture and molecular methods. The rate of detection of Campylobacter species from the samples was significant when the culture method was used alone in comparison to when it was used in combination with mPCR. The prevalence rates of Campylobacter species detected by mPCR were 36% (C. jejuni 20%; C. coli 16%), 28% (C. jejuni 12%; C. coli16%), and 29% (C. jejuni 15%; C. coli 14%) in pigeons, turkeys, and workers, respectively. In pigeons, significant variations in the C. jejuni and C. coli occurrence rates were reported in terms of the intestinal content (15, 4%), liver (4, 13%), and skin (9, 7%), respectively. In turkeys, Campylobacter species were mostly detected in liver samples with a percentage of 19%, followed by the skin (12%), and the intestinal content (8%). In conclusion, Campylobacter species are circulating in poultry farms in Egypt and could represent a hazard for humans. It is recommended that biosecurity measures should be applied to mitigate the occurrence of Campylobacter in poultry farms. Moreover, there is an urgent need to transform live bird markets into chilled poultry markets.

H9N2 avian influenza virus dispersal along Bangladeshi poultry trading networks.

Avian influenza virus subtype H9N2 is endemic in Bangladesh's poultry population. The subtype affects poultry production and poses a potential zoonotic risk. Insufficient understanding of how the poultry trading network shapes the dissemination of avian influenza viruses has hindered the design of targeted interventions to reduce their spread. Here, we use phylodynamic analyses of haemagglutinin sequences to investigate the spatial spread and dispersal patterns of H9N2 viruses in Bangladesh's poultry population, focusing on its two largest cities (Dhaka and Chattogram) and their poultry production and distribution networks. Our analyses suggest that H9N2 subtype avian influenza virus lineage movement occurs relatively less frequently between Bangladesh's two largest cities than within each city. H9N2 viruses detected in single markets are often more closely related to viruses from other markets in the same city than to each other, consistent with close epidemiological connectivity between markets. Our analyses also suggest that H9N2 viruses may spread more frequently between chickens of the three most commonly sold types (sunali-a cross-bred of Fayoumi hen and Rhode Island Red cock, deshi-local indigenous, and exotic broiler) in Dhaka than in Chattogram. Overall, this study improves our understanding of how Bangladesh's poultry trading system impacts avian influenza virus spread and should contribute to the design of tailored surveillance that accommodates local heterogeneity in virus dispersal patterns.

A cross-sectional study of avian influenza A virus in Myanmar live bird markets: Detection of a newly introduced H9N2?

BACKGROUND: Zoonotic influenza surveillance in Myanmar is sparse, despite the risks of introduction of such viruses from neighboring countries that could impact the poultry industry and lead to spillover to humans. METHODS: In July and August 2019, our multi-institutional partnership conducted a One Health-oriented, cross-sectional surveillance (weekly for 3 weeks) for influenza A and influenza D viruses at the three largest live bird markets in Yangon, Myanmar. RESULTS: The 27 bioaerosols, 90 bird cage swabs, 90 bird oropharyngeals, and 90 human nasopharyngeal samples yielded molecular influenza A detections in 8 bioaerosols (30.0%), 16 bird cages (17.8%), 15 bird oropharyngeals (16.7%), and 1 human nasopharyngeal (1.1%) samples. No influenza D was detected. Seven of the influenza A virus detections were found to be subtype A/H9N2, and one human nasopharyngeal sample was found to be subtype A/H1pdm. Among all IAV-positive samples, three of the A/H9N2-positive samples yielded live viruses from egg culture and their whole genome sequences revealing they belonged to the G9/Y280 lineage of A/H9N2 viruses. Phylogenetic analyses showed that these A/H9N2 sequences clustered separately from A/H9N2 viruses that were previously detected in Myanmar, supporting the notion that A/H9N2 viruses similar to those seen in wider Southeast Asia may have been introduced to Myanmar on multiple occasions. CONCLUSIONS: These findings call for increased surveillance efforts in Myanmar to monitor for the introduction of novel influenza viruses in poultry, as well as possible reassortment and zoonotic virus transmission.

Unique Variants of Avian Coronaviruses from Indigenous Chickens in Kenya.

The avian gamma-coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus (AvCoV, IBV; Coronaviridae family) causes upper respiratory disease associated with severe economic losses in the poultry industry worldwide. Here, we report for the first time in Kenya and the Eastern African region two novel AvCoVs, designated IBV/ck/KE/1920/A374/2017 (A374/17) and AvCoV/ck/KE/1922/A376/2017 (A376/17), inadvertently discovered using random nontargeted next-generation sequencing (NGS) of cloacal swabs collected from indigenous chickens. Despite having genome organization (5'UTR-[Rep1a/1ab-S-3a-3b-E-M-4b-4c-5a-5b-N-6b]-3'UTR), canonical conservation of essential genes and size (~27.6 kb) typical of IBVs, the Kenyan isolates do not phylogenetically cluster with any genotypes of the 37 IBV lineages and 26 unique variants (UVs). Excluding the spike gene, genome sequences of A374/17 and A376/17 are only 93.1% similar to each other and 86.7-91.4% identical to genomes of other AvCoVs. All five non-spike genes of the two isolates phylogenetically cluster together and distinctly from other IBVs and turkey coronaviruses (TCoVs), including the indigenous African GI-26 viruses, suggesting a common origin of the genome backbone of the Kenyan isolates. However, isolate A376/17 contains a TCoV-like spike (S) protein coding sequence and is most similar to Asian TCoVs (84.5-85.1%) compared to other TCoVs (75.6-78.5%), whereas isolate A374/17 contains an S1 gene sequence most similar to the globally distributed lineage GI-16 (78.4-79.5%) and the Middle Eastern lineage GI-23 (79.8-80.2%) viruses. Unanswered questions include the actual origin of the Kenyan AvCoVs, the potential pathobiological significance of their genetic variations, whether they have indeed established themselves as independent variants and subsequently spread within Kenya and to the neighboring east/central African countries that have porous live poultry trade borders, and whether the live-attenuated Mass-type (lineage GI-1)-based vaccines currently used in Kenya and most of the African countries provide protection against these genetically divergent field variants.

Aerosol exposure of live bird market workers to viable influenza A/H5N1 and A/H9N2 viruses, Cambodia.

Live bird markets (LBMs) have been identified as key factors in the spread, persistence and evolution of avian influenza viruses (AIVs). In addition, these settings have been associated with human infections with AIVs of pandemic concern. Exposure to aerosolised AIVs by workers in a Cambodian LBM was assessed using aerosol impact samplers. LBM vendors were asked to wear an air sampler for 30 min per day for 1 week while continuing their usual activities in the LBM during a period of high AIV circulation (February) and a period of low circulation (May). During the period of high circulation, AIV RNA was detected from 100% of the air samplers using molecular methods and viable AIV (A/H5N1 and/or A/H9N2) was isolated from 50% of air samplers following inoculation into embryonated chicken eggs. In contrast, AIV was not detected by molecular methods or successfully isolated during the period of low circulation. This study demonstrates the increased risk of aerosol exposure of LBM workers to AIVs during periods of high circulation and highlights the need for interventions during these high-risk periods. Novel approaches, such as environmental sampling, should be further explored at key high-risk interfaces as a potentially cost-effective alternative for monitoring pandemic threats.

Patterns and risk factors of avian influenza A(H5) and A(H9) virus infection in pigeons and quail at live bird markets in Bangladesh, 2017-2021.

The avian influenza virus (AIV) impacts poultry production, food security, livelihoods, and the risk of transmission to humans. Poultry, like pigeons and quail farming, is a growing sector in Bangladesh. However, the role of pigeons and quails in AIV transmission is not fully understood. Hence, we conducted this study to investigate the prevalence and risk factors of AIV subtypes in pigeons and quails at live bird markets (LBMs) in Bangladesh. We collected oropharyngeal and cloacal swab samples from 626 birds in 8 districts of Bangladesh from 2017 to 2021. We tested the swab samples for the matrix gene (M gene) followed by H5, H7, and H9 subtypes using real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). We then used exploratory analysis to investigate the seasonal and temporal patterns of AIV and a mixed effect logistic model to identify the variable that influences the presence of AIV in pigeons and quails. The overall prevalence of AIV was 25.56%. We found that the prevalence of AIV in pigeons is 17.36%, and in quail is 38.75%. The prevalence of A/H5, A/H9, and A/H5/H9 in quail is 4.17, 17.92, and 1.67%, respectively. Furthermore, the prevalence of A/H5, A/H9, and A/H5/H9 in pigeons is 2.85, 2.59, and 0.26%. We also found that the prevalence of AIV was higher in the dry season than in the wet season in both pigeons and quail. In pigeons, the prevalence of A/untyped (40%) increased considerably in 2020. In quail, however, the prevalence of A/H9 (56%) significantly increased in 2020. The mixed-effect logistic regression model showed that the vendors having waterfowl (AOR: 2.13; 95% CI: 1.04-4.33), purchasing birds from the wholesale market (AOR: 2.96; 95% CI: 1.48-5.92) instead of farms, mixing sick birds with the healthy ones (AOR: 1.60; 95% CI: 1.04-2.45) and mingling unsold birds with new birds (AOR: 3.07; 95% CI: 2.01-4.70) were significantly more likely to be positive for AIV compared with vendors that did not have these characteristics. We also found that the odds of AIV were more than twice as high in quail (AOR: 2.57; 95% CI: 1.61-4.11) as in pigeons. Furthermore, the likelihood of AIV detection was 4.19 times higher in sick and dead birds (95% CI: 2.38-7.35) than in healthy birds. Our study revealed that proper hygienic practices at the vendors in LBM are not maintained. We recommend improving biosecurity practices at the vendor level in LBM to limit the risk of AIV infection in pigeons and quail in Bangladesh.

Bacteriological quality and prevalence of foodborne bacteria in broiler meat sold at live bird markets at Mymensingh City in Bangladesh.

Objective: This study assessed the bacteriological quality and prevalence of foodborne bacteria in raw broiler meat sold in Mymensingh City. Materials and Methods: Thigh and breast meat samples (n = 80) from broiler chickens were randomly collected from four live bird markets (LBM) in Mymensingh city for bacteriological analysis. To determine the bacteriological quality, a 10-fold serial dilution of the thigh and breast homogenate was made. Then, total viable count (TVC), total coliform count (TCC), Staphylococci, and Salmonella spp. counts were determined using plate count agar, MacConkey agar, Mannitol salt agar, and Salmonella-Shigella agar. Gram stain, biochemical testing, PCR assays, and cultural properties were used to identify the bacterial isolates. Results: The TVC in the broiler meat sample ranged between log10 8.30 ± 0.54 colony forming unit (CFU)/gm and log10 9.04 ± 0.26 CFU/gm. TCC was found between log10 5.53 ± 0.38 CFU/gm and log10 6.66 ± 0.80 CFU/gm. The mean Staphylococcal count was recorded between log10 4.64 ± 0.61 CFU/gm and log10 6.42 ± 0.53 CFU/gm, and the total Salmonella count ranged between log10 4.75 ± 0.08 CFU/gm and log10 5.69 ± 0.58 CFU/gm. The prevalence of Escherichia coli was the highest (43.2%), followed by Staphylococcus aureus (36.8%) and Salmonella spp. (20%), respectively. Conclusions: Data from this study indicated that the TVC and TCC of raw broiler meat sold at LBM exceed the permissible limits and are contaminated with foodborne bacteria, which might cause public health hazards.

Campylobacter positivity and public health risks in live bird markets in Busia, Kenya: A value chain analysis.

Live bird markets (LBMs) provide integral hubs for 95% of poultry produced for food. Surveillance systems in LBMs serving smallholder farmers in sub-saharan Africa are often non-functional, and data about public health risks and emerging pathogens are lacking. Studies in Kenya have reported 29-44% Campylobacter prevalence in poultry. We analysed such LBMs in Kenya for likely transmission of Campylobacter from poultry to humans. We conducted a cross-sectional survey among 186 live poultry traders (LPTs) in 14 LBMs in a region with widespread backyard poultry systems. A pretested structured questionnaire was administered to all LPTs having regular contacts with poultry to gather market data and risk information on campylobacteriosis. Campylobacter was detected in individual cloacal cultures and identified through PCR. The median score obtained from the outcome of risk assessment dichotomized respondents into high and low risk categories. We performed logistic regression at 95% confidence interval (CI) to compare market characteristics and Campylobacter positivity to risk categories to identify LBM-associated public health risks. Markets had a median of 13 traders, and mean age of 46.3 ± 13.7 years. Majority 162/186 (87.1%) were males. Market behavioural processes by LPTs varied: Only 58.6% LPTs held bird species separate; onsite slaughter (38.7%); encountered sick-bird (93%) and dead-bird (83%) amidst limited health inspection (31.2%). Campylobacter positivity in live birds was 43/112 (38.4%, 95% CI: 29.4-48.1). Risk information on campylobacteriosis was low 41/114 (36%, 95% CI: 27.2-45.5). Sanitary risks were related to accumulation of litter (adjusted prevalence odds ratio [aPOR]: 19.67, 95% CI: 3.01-128.52). Accessing hand-wash facilities (aPOR: .32, 95% CI: .13-.78) and access to information (aPOR: .24, 95% CI: .09-.61) were protective. Sanitary risks were related to poor hygiene. LBMs could be central surveillance sites for Campylobacter. Public health authorities/actors should consider appropriate targeting to improve sanitary measures and Campylobacter control strategies.

Multi-Drug Resistant Escherichia coli, Biosecurity and Anti-Microbial Use in Live Bird Markets, Abeokuta, Nigeria.

Live bird markets (LBM) remain a critical link from farm to fork in the poultry value chain, which oftentimes promotes indiscriminate antimicrobial use (AMU) and resistance (AMR). In this study, we assessed biosecurity practices, AMU, and associated these with multidrug resistant (MDR) E. coli in LBMs in Abeokuta, Ogun State. A cross-sectional survey among live bird sellers (LBS) in eight LBMs was conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire. Also, cloacal samples (n = 200) were randomly collected and pooled for bacteriological detection of MDR E. coli in live chickens of consenting LBS. Susceptibility to 14 antimicrobials belonging to 6 different classes was determined using the disk diffusion method. Biosecurity level and AMU were generally low. LBS less than 46 years were 6.8- fold more likely to fall within the poor biosecurity level (Crudes odds ratio = 6.8; 95% CI; 1.20-38.56; p = 0.03) than others. An informal or primary school education increased the odds of having a poor practice of AMU by 15.1 folds (Crudes odds ratio = 15.1; 95% CI; 2.73-84.18; p = 0.002) than those with secondary or tertiary. The prevalence of E. coli and MDR E. coli at the LBM level were 80% and 56.3%, respectively. Extremely high resistance rates were observed for ceftazidime (96.9%) and imipenem (90.6%). The odds of MDR E. coli increased eight-fold in poultry kept by LBS who use AMs as prophylaxis. This current data could be useful for the development of targeted behavioral risk communication and mitigation strategies for AMR to impede the potential horizontal transfer of AMR genes to humans through animal-sourced food.

Detection of newly introduced Y280-lineage H9N2 avian influenza viruses in live bird markets in Korea.

We report the first detection of Y280-lineage H9N2 avian influenza viruses in live bird markets in Korea during July 2020. The viruses were isolated from domestic ducks and chickens traded in three markets in two different provinces, indicating dispersal of the newly introduced viruses. Complete genome sequencing and comparative phylogenetic analyses of all eight gene segments of the viruses showed high nucleotide homology to a Y280-lineage H9N2 avian influenza virus isolated in a chicken farm in China, which belongs to one of the most prevalent H9N2 genotypes in China. Increasing human cases of the same genotype H9N2 infection in China and the mammalian specific markers present in the viruses isolated suggest potential implications for public health.