Increased platelet distribution width and reduced IL-2 and IL-12 are associated with thrombocytopenia in Plasmodium vivax malaria

BACKGROUND Thrombocytopenia in malaria involves platelet destruction and consumption; however, the cellular response underlying this phenomenon has still not been elucidated. OBJECTIVE To find associations between platelet indices and unbalanced Th1/Th2/Th17 cytokines as a response to thrombocytopenia in Plasmodium vivax infected (Pv-MAL) patients. METHODS Platelet counts and quantification of Th1/Th2/Th17 cytokine levels were compared in 77 patients with uncomplicated P. vivax malaria and 37 healthy donors from the same area (endemic control group - ENCG). FINDINGS Thrombocytopenia was the main manifestation in 55 patients, but was not associated with parasitaemia. The Pv-MAL patients showed increases in the mean platelet volume (MPV), which may be consistent with larger or megaplatelets. Contrary to the findings regarding the endemic control group, MPV and platelet distribution width (PDW) did not show an inverse correlation, due the increase in the heterogeneity of platelet width. In addition, the Pv-MAL patients presented increased IL-1β and reduced IL-12p70 and IL-2 serum concentrations. Furthermore, the reduction of these cytokines was associated with PDW values. MAIN CONCLUSIONS Our data demonstrate that an increase in MPV and the association between reductions of IL-2 and IL-12 and PDW values may be an immune response to thrombocytopenia in uncomplicated P. vivax malaria.

A simple, ex vivo phagocytosis assay of Plasmodium vivax merozoites by flow cytometry

As phagocytosis is the first line of defense against malaria, we developed a phagocytosis assay with Plasmodium vivax (P. vivax) merozoites that can be applied to evaluate vaccine candidates. Briefly, after leukocyte removal with loosely packed cellulose powder in a syringe, P. vivax trophozoites matured to the merozoite-rich schizont stages in the presence of the E64 protease inhibitor. The Percoll gradient-enriched schizonts were chemically disrupted to release merozoites that were submitted to merozoite opsonin-dependent phagocytosis in two phagocytic lines with human and mouse antibodies against the N- and C-terminus of P. vivax Merozoite Surface Protein-1 (Nterm-PvMSP1 and MSP119). The resulting assay is simple and efficient for use as a routine phagocytic assay for the evaluation of merozoite stage vaccine candidates.

Preliminary assessment of anti-α-Gal IgG and IgM levels in patients with patent Plasmodium vivax infection

Anti-α-Gal responses may exert a protective effect in falciparum malaria. However, the biological role of such antibodies is still unknown during Plasmodium vivax infections. We investigated IgG and IgM responses to α-Gal in individuals with vivax malaria. Anti-α-Gal IgG and IgM levels were higher in these patients than in controls, but no significant correlation was found between parasitaemia and anti-α-Gal response, nor between this response and ABO blood group status. This is the first study to investigate anti-α-Gal antibodies in P. vivax-infected patients; a larger survey is necessary to achieve a better understanding of host immune response during vivax malaria.

Performance of an immuno-rapid malaria Pf/Pv rapid diagnostic test for malaria diagnosis in the Western Brazilian Amazon

Abstract INTRODUCTION: Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) for detecting Plasmodium antigens have become increasingly common worldwide. We aimed to evaluate the accuracy of the Immuno-Rapid Malaria Pf/Pv RDT in detecting Plasmodium vivax infection compared to standard thick blood smear (TBS) under microscopy. METHODS: Hundred and eighty-one febrile patients from the hospital's regular admissions were assessed using TBS and RDT in a blinded experiment. RESULTS: RDT showed a sensitivity of 98.9%, specificity of 100%, and accuracy of 99.5% for P. vivax infection when compared to TBS. CONCLUSIONS: The RDT is highly accurate, making it a valuable diagnostic tool for P. vivax infection.

Modulação da resposta imunológica por moléculas regulatórias durante a infecção pelo Plasmodium vivax / Modulation of the immune response by regulatory molecules during Plasmodium vivax infection

No Brasil a malária ainda é considerada um grande problema de saúde pública e o Plasmodium vivax é considerado o principal agente causador, com 88% de incidência. Sabe-se que a resposta contra esse parasito depende da resposta de células T e a ativação dessas envolve, além da sinalização através do receptor de célula T (TCR), a sinalização secundária, como por exemplo, a desencadeada por moléculas reguladoras. A combinação das interações mediadas por esse conjunto de moléculas regula a extensão, qualidade e duração da ativação de células T e, portanto, influencia significativamente o curso das respostas imunes. O objetivo desse trabalho é avaliar o padrão leucocitário, o perfil de expressão de receptores inibidores como morte programada-1 (PD-1), antígeno 4 associado ao linfócito T citotóxico (CTLA-4), domínios de mucina e imunoglobulina de célula T (TIM-3) e gene 3 de ativação linfocitária (LAG-3) em populações de células T, além da influencia da expressão destes receptores na modulação da produção de citocinas em pacientes infectados pelo P. vivax. Para isso, células mononucleares do sangue periférico (PBMC) foram coletadas de pacientes infectados pelo P. vivax em Porto Velho, RO e analisadas por citometria de fluxo. Os resultados demonstram que a infecção pelo P. vivax desencadeia aumento da expressão de receptores inibitórios em linfócitos T CD4+ e CD8+, principalmente em subpopulações de memória e em células de T reguladoras (Treg)

Importante mencionar que ensaios funcionais, utilizando-se anticorpos monoclonais específicos para CTLA-4, PD-1, TIM-3, confirmaram a função moduladora dessesreceptores levando ao aumento da produção de citocinas por células antígeno-específicas. As células Treg também apresentam capacidade prejudicada durante a malária. Apesar da expressão aumentada de PD-1, não foi estabelecido uma relação direta entre a expressão deste e da perda da modulação pelas Treg. No entanto, a expressão aumentada de PD-1 é coincidente com a diminuição da expressão de Foxp3 e Helios, e com o aumento de Tbet, e consequentemente com o aumento da produção de IFN-γ. Nossos dados corroboram nossa hipótese de que o aumento da expressão de receptores inibitórios durante a infecção pelo P. vivax prejudica funções efetoras de células T. Novas abordagens precisam ser exploradas para confirmarmos se a expressão de PD-1 por Treg é apenas um biomarcador de perda de função, ou se essa molécula influencia diretamente a função efetora dessa célula durante a malária vivax

Relationship between Antibody-Positive Rate against Plasmodium vivax Circumsporozoite Protein and Incidence of Malaria

The relationship between anti-Plasmodium vivax circumsporozoite protein (CSP) antibody levels and the prevalence of malaria in epidemic areas of South Korea was evaluated. Blood samples were collected from inhabitants of Gimpo-si (city), Paju-si, and Yeoncheon-gun (county) in Gyeonggi-do (province), as well as Cheorwon-gun in Gangwon-do from November to December 2004. Microscopic examinations were used to identify malaria parasites. ELISA was used to quantitate anti-circumsporozoite protein (CSP) antibodies against P. vivax. A total of 1,774 blood samples were collected. The overall CSP-ELISA-positive rate was 7.7% (n=139). The annual parasite incidences (APIs) in these areas gradually decreased from 2004 to 2005 (1.09 and 0.80, respectively). The positive rate in Gimpo (10.4%, 44/425) was the highest identified by CSP-ELISA. The highest API was found in Yeoncheon, followed by Cheorwon, Paju, and Gimpo in both years. The positive rates of CSP-ELISA were closely related to the APIs in the study areas. These results suggest that seroepidemiological studies based on CSP may be helpful in estimating the malaria prevalence in certain areas. In addition, this assay can be used to establish and evaluate malaria control and eradication programs in affected areas.

Malaria in pregnant women living in areas of low transmission on the southeast Brazilian Coast: molecular diagnosis and humoural immunity profile

Studies on autochthonous malaria in low-transmission areas in Brazil have acquired epidemiological relevance because they suggest continued transmission in what remains of the Atlantic Forest. In the southeastern portion of the state of São Paulo, outbreaks in the municipality of Juquitiba have been the focus of studies on the prevalence of Plasmodium, including asymptomatic cases. Data on the occurrence of the disease or the presence of antiplasmodial antibodies in pregnant women from this region have not previously been described. Although Plasmodium falciparum in pregnant women has been widely addressed in the literature, the interaction of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium malariae with this cohort has been poorly explored to date. We monitored the circulation of Plasmodium in pregnant women in health facilities located in Juquitiba using thick blood film and molecular protocols, as well as immunological assays, to evaluate humoural immune parameters. Through real-time and nested polymerase chain reaction, P. vivax and P. malariae were detected for the first time in pregnant women, with a positivity of 5.6%. Immunoassays revealed the presence of IgG antibodies: 44% for ELISA-Pv, 38.4% for SD-Bioline-Pv and 18.4% for indirect immunofluorescence assay-Pm. The high prevalence of antibodies showed significant exposure of this population to Plasmodium. In regions with similar profiles, testing for a malaria diagnosis might be indicated in prenatal care.

The Duffy binding protein as a key target for a Plasmodium vivax vaccine: lessons from the Brazilian Amazon

Plasmodium vivax infects human erythrocytes through a major pathway that requires interaction between an apical parasite protein, the Duffy binding protein (PvDBP) and its receptor on reticulocytes, the Duffy antigen/receptor for chemokines (DARC). The importance of the interaction between PvDBP (region II, DBPII) and DARC to P. vivax infection has motivated our malaria research group at Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (state of Minas Gerais, Brazil) to conduct a number of immunoepidemiological studies to characterise the naturally acquired immunity to PvDBP in populations living in the Amazon rainforest. In this review, we provide an update on the immunology and molecular epidemiology of PvDBP in the Brazilian Amazon - an area of markedly unstable malaria transmission - and compare it with data from other parts of Latin America, as well as Asia and Oceania.

Seroprevalence of Plasmodium vivax in the Republic of Korea (2003-2005) using Indirect Fluorescent Antibody Test

Plasmodium vivax reemerged in the Republic of Korea (ROK) in 1993, and is likely to continue to affect public health. The purpose of this study was to measure levels of anti-P. vivax antibodies using indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) in border areas of ROK, to determine the seroprevalence of malaria (2003-2005) and to plan effective control strategies. Blood samples of the inhabitants in Gimpo-si, Paju-si, and Yeoncheon-gun (Gyeonggi-do), and Cheorwon-gun (Gangwon-do) were collected and kept in Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (KCDC). Out of a total of 1,774 serum samples tested, the overall seropositivity was 0.94% (n=17). The seropositivity was the highest in Paju-si (1.9%, 7/372), followed by Gimpo-si (1.4%, 6/425), Yeoncheon-gun (0.67%, 3/451), and Cheorwon-gun (0.19%, 1/526). The annual parasite incidence (API) in these areas gradually decreased from 2003 to 2005 (1.69, 1.09, and 0.80 in 2003, 2004, and 2005, respectively). The highest API was found in Yeoncheon-gun, followed by Cheorwon-gun, Paju-si, and Gimpo-si. The API ranking in these areas did not change over the 3 years. The seropositivity of Gimpo-si showed a strong linear relationship with the API of 2005 (r=0.9983, P=0.036). Seropositivity data obtained using IFAT may be useful for understanding malaria prevalence of relevant years, predicting future transmission of malaria, and for establishing and evaluating malaria control programs in affected areas.

Estudo Molecular dos Parasitos Causadores da Malária Simiana no Centro de Primatologia do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil / Molecular study of Causing Parasites of simian malaria in Primate Center of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

No Brasil, foram descritas duas espécies de plasmódios simianos, Plasmodium brasilianum e Plasmodium simium, que são morfológica, genética e imunologicamente similares aos plasmódios humanos Plasmodium malariae e Plasmodium vivax, respectivamente. Plasmodium brasilianum infecta naturalmente macacos das famílias Cebidae, Aotidae, Pitheciidae e Atelidae, e foi detectado em uma ampla região geográfica. Já P. simium foi encontrado em uma área muito mais restrita, com descrições apenas nas regiões Sul e Sudeste, infectando naturalmente somente os gêneros Alouatta e Brachyteles, da família Atelidae. Apesar da malária no Brasil estar restrita como endemia à região amazônica, também são descritos casos da doença na região extra-amazônica, entre eles casos autóctones de malária,como os notificados em áreas de Mata Atlântica. Sugere-se que a manutenção destes casos envolva a presença de macacos infectados, que podem atuar como reservatórios da doença.Portanto, estudos moleculares das espécies de plasmódios simianos são fundamentais para o entendimento da real prevalência da doença, da dinâmica de transmissão, diversidade dos parasitos, assim como para esclarecer as relações filogenéticas entre as diferentes espécies de Plasmodium. O relato recente de casos autóctones no estado do Rio de Janeiro nos motivou a investigar a malária simiana na região...

Estudo Molecular dos Parasitos Causadores da Malária Simiana no Centro de Primatologia do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil

No Brasil, foram descritas duas espécies de plasmódios simianos, Plasmodium brasilianum e Plasmodium simium, que são morfológica, genética e imunologicamente similares aos plasmódios humanos Plasmodium malariae e Plasmodium vivax, respectivamente. Plasmodium brasilianum infecta naturalmente macacos das famílias Cebidae, Aotidae, Pitheciidae e Atelidae, e foi detectado em uma ampla região geográfica. Já P. simium foi encontrado em uma área muito mais restrita, com descrições apenas nas regiões Sul e Sudeste, infectando naturalmente somente os gêneros Alouatta e Brachyteles, da família Atelidae. Apesar da malária no Brasil estar restrita como endemia à região amazônica, também são descritos casos da doença na região extra-amazônica, entre eles casos autóctones de malária,como os notificados em áreas de Mata Atlântica. Sugere-se que a manutenção destes casos envolva a presença de macacos infectados, que podem atuar como reservatórios da doença.Portanto, estudos moleculares das espécies de plasmódios simianos são fundamentais para o entendimento da real prevalência da doença, da dinâmica de transmissão, diversidade dos parasitos, assim como para esclarecer as relações filogenéticas entre as diferentes espécies de Plasmodium. O relato recente de casos autóctones no estado do Rio de Janeiro nos motivou a investigar a malária simiana na região.

O presente estudo foi realizado em parceria com o Centro de Primatologia do Rio de Janeiro (CPRJ), que está localizado no município deGuapimirim, onde foram relatados alguns destes casos autóctones. Foi realizada a extração de DNA a partir de amostras de sangue de 30 primatas do CPRJ para o diagnóstico molecular por Nested PCR e sequenciamento. O resultado do diagnóstico molecular indicou uma taxa de infecção de 30% nos primatas do CPRJ (9 amostras positivas), sendo 5 amostras positivas para P. brasilianum; 3 amostras positivas para P. simium e 1 amostra positiva para ambos os parasitos (infecção mista). O fragmento do 18SSU rRNA amplificado para o diagnóstico foi sequenciado e as sequencias obtidas de P. simium alinhadas com sequências de outras espécies de Plasmodium disponíveis no GenBank e utilizadas para reconstrução da árvore filogenética.A partir do alinhamento, fica evidente que o fragmento analisado é bastante conservado,mostrando uma alta similaridade genética entre P. simium e P. vivax. É importante ressaltar que o nosso estudo mostra de forma inédita a descrição de infecção malárica por P. simium nos gêneros Cebus e Sapajus. Essa descoberta é de suma relevância uma vez que ressalta apossibilidade de malária por P. simium em outras espécies de primatas não humanos, cujo impacto pode ser significativo para a epidemiologia da doença. A presença de símios infectados atuando como reservatórios da malária pode sugerir um caráter zoonótico da doença nas regiões de Mata Atlântica. Além disso, abre a possibilidade de utilizar estes macacos como novo modelo de malária vivax. Ademais, o maior entendimento da saúde dos animais selvagens é um ponto chave para a sua conservação. As doenças parasitárias e infecciosas estão envolvidas em eventos de declínios populacionais, e até mesmo de extinções de espécies. Logo, este estudo pode contribuir para a conservação dos primatas, especialmente aqueles que estão ameaçados de extinção, como alguns Cebus e Sapajus.

Evaluación de campo de la precisión de la prueba de diagnóstico rápido SD Bioline Malaria Antigen Pf/Pv® en Colombia / Field evaluation for diagnostic accuracy of the rapid test SD Bioline Malaria Antigen Pf/Pv® in Colombia

Introducción. Las pruebas de diagnóstico rápido han sido postuladas como una forma de garantizar el diagnóstico de malaria, o paludismo, en zonas de difícil acceso. A pesar de su uso difundido, no hay estudios de campo que evalúen la precisión de la prueba de diagnóstico rápido SD Bioline Malaria Antigen Pf/Pv® en Colombia. Objetivo. Evaluar la precisión diagnóstica de la prueba de diagnóstico rápido SD Bioline Malaria Antigen Pf/Pv ®, en dos departamentos endémicos para malaria, comparando el diagnóstico con la gota gruesa corregida por reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR). Materiales y métodos. Se trata de un estudio retrospectivo para evaluar sensibilidad, especificidad, valor diagnóstico positivo (VPP) y negativo (VPN), concordancia y límites de sensibilidad por rangos de parasitemia, de la prueba SD Bioline Malaria Antigen ® Pf/Pv, en Córdoba y Chocó. Los resultados fueron comparados con la gota gruesa corregida por PCR. Resultados. De 383 muestras procesadas, 121 fueron positivas (75 para Plasmodium vivax, 42 para P. falciparum y 4 para infección mixta) y 262 muestras negativas; los resultados obtenidos fueron los siguientes: P. vivax: sensibilidad, 92,0 % (IC 95% 83,6-96,3); especificidad, 98,7 % (IC 95% 96,7-99,5); VPP, 94,5 % (IC 95% 86,7-97,9); VPN, 98,1 % (IC 95% 95,8-99,1); IK, 0,90 (0,80-1,00). P. falciparum: sensibilidad, 88,1 % (IC 95% 75,0-94,8); especificidad, 97,9 % (IC 95% 95,8-99,0); VPP, 84,1% % (IC 95% 70,6-92,1); VPN, 98,5 % (IC 95% 96,6-99,4); IK, 0,80 (0,70-0,90). Conclusiones. La prueba tuvo un buen desempeño, siendo mejor para P. vivax en comparación con que para P. falciparum. Persisten dificultades en la detección de bajas parasitemias. La falta de amplificación de los genes Pfhrp2 y Pfhrp3 en dos muestras con diagnóstico de como infección mixta, sugiere una posible deleción conjunta de estos genes.

Introduction: Rapid diagnostic tests (RDT) have been postulated as a way to ensure access to malaria diagnosis in remote areas. Despite its widespread use, there are no field studies to evaluate the accuracy of the SD Bioline Malaria Antigen Pf/Pv in Colombia RDT. Objective: To evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of the SD Bioline Malaria Antigen Pf/Pv® RDT in two departments endemic for malaria, comparing diagnosis with thick film corrected with PCR. Materials and methods: A retrospective study was carried out to evaluate sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV), concordance and sensitivity limits according to parasitemia ranges for the SD Bioline Malaria Antigen Pf/Pv ® test in Cordoba and Choco. The results were compared with microscopy corrected by PCR. Results: A total of 383 samples processed, 121 were positive (75 for P. vivax , 42 for P. falciparum and 4 for mixed infection) and 262 negative samples. P. vivax: sensitivity 92.0% (95% CI: 83.6-96.3), specificity 98.7% ( 95% CI: 96.7-99.5), PPV 94.5% (95% CI: 86.7-97.9), NPV 98.1% (95% CI: 95.8-99.1), Cohen´s kappa coefficient was 0.90 (0.80-1.00). P. falciparum: sensitivity 88.1% (95% CI: 75.0-94.8), specificity 97.9% (95% CI: 95.8-99.0), PPV 84.1% (95% CI: 70.6-92.1), NPV 98.5% (95% IC: 96.6-99.4), Cohen´s kappa coefficient 0.80 (95% CI: 0.70-0.90). Conclusions: The test performed well, being better for P. vivax as compared to P. falciparum. There are still difficulties of RDT to detect low parasitemias. The non amplification of Pfhrp2 and Pfhrp3 genes in two samples diagnosed as mixed infection, suggest a possible deletion of these two genes together.

Cross-reactive anti-PfCLAG9 antibodies in the sera of asymptomatic parasite carriers of Plasmodium vivax

The PfCLAG9 has been extensively studied because their immunogenicity. Thereby, the gene product is important for therapeutics interventions and a potential vaccine candidate. Antibodies against synthetic peptides corresponding to selected sequences of the Plasmodium falciparum antigen PfCLAG9 were found in sera of falciparum malaria patients from Rondônia, in the Brazilian Amazon. Much higher antibody titres were found in semi-immune and immune asymptomatic parasite carriers than in subjects suffering clinical infections, corroborating original findings in Papua Guinea. However, sera of Plasmodium vivax patients from the same Amazon area, in particular from asymptomatic vivax parasite carriers, reacted strongly with the same peptides. Bioinformatic analyses revealed regions of similarity between P. falciparum Pfclag9 and the P. vivax ortholog Pvclag7. Indirect fluorescent microscopy analysis showed that antibodies against PfCLAG9 peptides elicited in BALB/c mice react with human red blood cells (RBCs) infected with both P. falciparum and P. vivax parasites. The patterns of reactivity on the surface of the parasitised RBCs are very similar. The present observations support previous findings that PfCLAG9 may be a target of protective immune responses and raises the possibility that the cross reactive antibodies to PvCLAG7 in mixed infections play a role in regulate the fate of Plasmodium mixed infections.

Seroepidemiología del paludismo en un grupo de migrantes en tránsito (Chiapas, 2008)

OBJETIVO: Conocer la prevalencia del paludismo y los factores asociados con la infección de migrantes en la frontera sur de México, durante 2008. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: En 706 migrantes, se investigó la infección activa mediante prueba rápida y PCR o pasada, mediante serología y se aplicó un cuestionario para investigar las condiciones asociadas con la infección. RESULTADOS: 85.6% provenía de Centroamérica. Ninguno presentó infección activa; 4.2% fue seropositivo y la mayoría provenía de los países con mayor incidencia de paludismo en la región. La seropositividad se asoció con el número de episodios previos de paludismo (RM=1.44; IC95% 1.04-2.00), años de permanencia en su comunidad de origen (RM=1.03; IC95% 1.00 -1.07) y conocimiento y automedicación con antipalúdicos (RM=3.38; IC95% 1.48-7.67). CONCLUSIONES: La exposición previa de migrantes al paludismo y las dificultades para su detección indican la necesidad de nuevas estrategias para la vigilancia epidemiológica para estas poblaciones.

OBJECTIVE: To know the prevalence of malaria and the factors associated with the infection in migrants in the southern border of Mexico, during 2008. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In 706 migrants, active malaria infection was investigated using a rapid diagnostic test and PCR and past infection using serology. A questionnaire was applied to investigate the conditions associated to infection. RESULTS: 85.6% originated from Central America, none presented an active infection, although 4.2% were seropositive, most of these came from the countries with the highest malaria incidence in the region. Seropositivity was associated with the number of previous malaria episodes (OR=1.44; IC95% 1.04-2.00), years living in their community of origin (OR=1.03; IC95% 1.00-1.07), and knowledge and self-medication with anti-malaria drugs (OR=3.38; IC95% 1.48-7.67). CONCLUSIONS:. The previous exposure of migrants and the difficulties for their detection indicate the need of new strategies for the epidemiological surveillance for these populations.

Malaria diagnosis from pooled blood samples: comparative analysis of real-time PCR, nested PCR and immunoassay as a platform for the molecular and serological diagnosis of malaria on a large-scale

Malaria diagnoses has traditionally been made using thick blood smears, but more sensitive and faster techniques are required to process large numbers of samples in clinical and epidemiological studies and in blood donor screening. Here, we evaluated molecular and serological tools to build a screening platform for pooled samples aimed at reducing both the time and the cost of these diagnoses. Positive and negative samples were analysed in individual and pooled experiments using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), nested PCR and an immunochromatographic test. For the individual tests, 46/49 samples were positive by real-time PCR, 46/49 were positive by nested PCR and 32/46 were positive by immunochromatographic test. For the assays performed using pooled samples, 13/15 samples were positive by real-time PCR and nested PCR and 11/15 were positive by immunochromatographic test. These molecular methods demonstrated sensitivity and specificity for both the individual and pooled samples. Due to the advantages of the real-time PCR, such as the fast processing and the closed system, this method should be indicated as the first choice for use in large-scale diagnosis and the nested PCR should be used for species differentiation. However, additional field isolates should be tested to confirm the results achieved using cultured parasites and the serological test should only be adopted as a complementary method for malaria diagnosis.

Biomarkers for susceptibility to infection and disease severity in human malaria

Malaria remains a major infectious disease that affects millions of people. Once infected with Plasmodium parasites, a host can develop a broad range of clinical presentations, which result from complex interactions between factors derived from the host, the parasite and the environment. Intense research has focused on the identification of reliable predictors for exposure, susceptibility to infection and the development of severe complications during malaria. Although most promising markers are based on the current understanding of malaria immunopathogenesis, some are also focused more broadly on mechanisms of tissue damage and inflammation. Taken together, these markers can help optimise therapeutic strategies and reduce disease burden. Here, we review the recent advances in the identification of malarial biomarkers, focusing on those related to parasite exposure and disease susceptibility. We also discuss priorities for research in biomarkers for severe malaria.

Platform for Plasmodium vivax vaccine discovery and development

Plasmodium vivax is the most prevalent malaria parasite on the American continent. It generates a global burden of 80-100 million cases annually and represents a tremendous public health problem, particularly in the American and Asian continents. A malaria vaccine would be considered the most cost-effective measure against this vector-borne disease and it would contribute to a reduction in malaria cases and to eventual eradication. Although significant progress has been achieved in the search for Plasmodium falciparum antigens that could be used in a vaccine, limited progress has been made in the search for P. vivax components that might be eligible for vaccine development. This is primarily due to the lack of in vitro cultures to serve as an antigen source and to inadequate funding. While the most advanced P. falciparum vaccine candidate is currently being tested in Phase III trials in Africa, the most advanced P. vivax candidates have only advanced to Phase I trials. Herein, we describe the overall strategy and progress in P. vivax vaccine research, from antigen discovery to preclinical and clinical development and we discuss the regional potential of Latin America to develop a comprehensive platform for vaccine development.

Malaria transmission blocking immunity and sexual stage vaccines for interrupting malaria transmission in Latin America

Malaria is a vector-borne disease that is considered to be one of the most serious public health problems due to its high global mortality and morbidity rates. Although multiple strategies for controlling malaria have been used, many have had limited impact due to the appearance and rapid dissemination of mosquito resistance to insecticides, parasite resistance to multiple antimalarial drug, and the lack of sustainability. Individuals in endemic areas that have been permanently exposed to the parasite develop specific immune responses capable of diminishing parasite burden and the clinical manifestations of the disease, including blocking of parasite transmission to the mosquito vector. This is referred to as transmission blocking (TB) immunity (TBI) and is mediated by specific antibodies and other factors ingested during the blood meal that inhibit parasite development in the mosquito. These antibodies recognize proteins expressed on either gametocytes or parasite stages that develop in the mosquito midgut and are considered to be potential malaria vaccine candidates. Although these candidates, collectively called TB vaccines (TBV), would not directly stop malaria from infecting individuals, but would stop transmission from infected person to non-infected person. Here, we review the progress that has been achieved in TBI studies and the development of TBV and we highlight their potential usefulness in areas of low endemicity such as Latin America.

Alterações hematológicas e perfil fenotípico das células mononucleares do sangue periférico de pacientes com malária por P. vivax e P. falciparum na fase aguda e de convalescença da infecção / Hematological and phenotypic profile of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with malaria by P. vivax and P. falciparum in acute and convalescent infection

A malária continua sendo uma das doenças parasitárias mais importantes do mundo, sendo responsável por 300-500 milhões de casos por ano. A resistência dos plasmódios aos medicamentos antimaláricos e dos vetores aos inseticidas agrava ainda mais a situação. Neste contexto, o desenvolvimento de novos métodos terapêuticos e profiláticos é de suma importância. Apesar dos esforços, uma vacina eficaz ainda não foi desenvolvida. Atualmente sabe-se que a resposta imune antiplasmódio pode ser responsável pela proteção e patogênese da doença. Porém, os mecanismos envolvidos na imunidade protetora e/ou patológica ainda não estão esclarecidos. Assim sendo, o presente trabalho objetiva avaliar as alterações hematológicas e o perfil imunofenotípico de células mononucleares de sangue periférico de indivíduos naturalmente infectados por P. vivax (n=47) ou por P. falciparum (n=24) provenientes de área endêmica brasileira (PV-RO), na fase aguda e de convalescença. Para isso, sangue dos voluntários foi coletado para realização do exame parasitológico, do hemograma completo e para obtenção de células mononucleadas para a avaliação do perfil imunofenotípico através de citometria de fluxo. As populações alvo incluíram células CD4(positivo), CD8(positivo), linfócitos T, Tgamadelta, células CD3(negativo) e subpopulações produtoras de diferentes citocinas (IFN-gama, TNF-alfa, IL-2, IL-4, IL-10); células NK, NKT e subpopulações CD4(positivo) e CD8(positivo); células B e subpopulações (incluindo populações produtoras de TGF-beta). Na fase aguda, pacientes com malária vivax e falciparum apresentaram plaquetopenia, leucopenia e aumento no número de bastões e também apresentaram um aumento no percentual de células CD4(positivo) CD8(negativo) e redução no percentual de células B CD5(negativo) CD11b(negativo). Pacientes com P. vivax apresentaram aumento no percentual de: células CD4(positivo), CD8(positivo), TCRgamadelta(positivo) e CD3(negativo) produtoras de TNF-alfa; células CD8 ativadas, células T e células CD3(negativo) produtoras de IL-10; células B expressando TGF-beta. Nos indivíduos infectados por P. falciparum foi observado um aumento de células T TNF-alfa(positivo) e redução de células T citotóxicas. Na fase de convalescença, os dois grupos apresentaram redução de células Tgamadelta e CD3(negativo) produtoras de TNF-alfa; células CD3(negativo) IL-2(positivo); células CD3(negativo) IL-10(positivo). Apenas os indivíduos infectados com P. vivax apresentaram redução de CD4(positivo) CD8(negativo); células B CD5(positivo) CD11b(negativo); células CD8(positivo) produtoras de TNF-alfa e de TNF-alfa e IFN-gama de forma simultânea; além do aumento de células B CD5(negativo) CD11b(negativo). Tanto o pacientes com P. falciparum quanto com o P. vivax apresentaram significante diminuição no número de linfócitos e apenas algumas subpopulações celulares circulantes se encontravam alteradas. Entretanto, alterações significativas no perfil de expressão de citocinas foram observadas principalmente nos pacientes com P. vivax. Dentro desse contexto, na fase aguda da malária por P. vivax houve aumento tanto no percentual de células com marcação para citocinas do tipo 1 quanto para citocinas do tipo 2. Como todos os pacientes incluídos no trabalho apresentaram malária não complicada, pode-se supor que o mais importante no controle da gravidade da doença é justamente o balanço entre resposta pró e anti-inflamatória.

Malaria vaccine: a current perspective.

The observation that inactivated Plasmodium sporozoites could protect against malaria is about a hundred years old. However, systematic demonstration of protection using irradiated sporozoites occurred in the nineteen-sixties, providing the impetus for the development of a malaria vaccine. In 1983, the circumsporozoite protein (CSP), a major sporozoite surface antigen, became the first Plasmodium gene to be cloned, and a CSP-based vaccine appeared imminent. Today, 25 years later, we are still without an effective malaria vaccine, despite considerable information regarding the genomics and proteomics of the malaria parasites. Although clinical immunity to malaria has been well-documented in adults living in malaria endemic areas, our understanding of the host-immune responses operating in such malaria immune persons remains poor, and limits the development of immune control of the disease. Currently, several antigen and adjuvant combinations have entered clinical trials, in which efficacy against experimental sporozoite challenge and/or exposure to natural infection is evaluated. This review collates information on the recent status of the field. Unresolved challenges facing the development of a malaria vaccine are also discussed.