Supplementary Far-Red and Blue Lights Influence the Biomass and Phytochemical Profiles of Two Lettuce Cultivars in Plant Factory.

Three different LED spectra (W: White light; WFR: W + far-red light; WB: W + blue light) with similar photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) were designed to explore the effects of supplementary far-red and blue lights on leaf color, biomass and phytochemicals of two cultivars of red-leaf lettuce ("Yanzhi" and "Red Butter") in an artificial lighting plant factory. Lettuce plants under WB had redder leaf color and significantly higher contents of pigments, such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, chlorophyll (a + b) and anthocyanins. The accumulation of health-promoting compounds, such as vitamin C, vitamin A, total phenolic compounds, total flavonoids and anthocyanins in the two lettuce cultivars were obviously enhanced by WB. Lettuce under WFR showed remarkable increase in fresh weight and dry weight; meanwhile, significant decreases of pigments, total phenolic compounds, total flavonoids and vitamin C were found. Thus, in the plant factory system, the application of WB can improve the coloration and quality of red leaf lettuce while WFR was encouraged for the purpose of elevating the yield of lettuce.

Phosphate (Pi) Starvation Up-Regulated GmCSN5A/B Participates in Anthocyanin Synthesis in Soybean (Glycine max) Dependent on Pi Availability.

Phosphorus (P) is an essential macronutrient for plant growth and development. Among adaptive strategies of plants to P deficiency, increased anthocyanin accumulation is widely observed in plants, which is tightly regulated by a set of genes at transcription levels. However, it remains unclear whether other key regulators might control anthocyanin synthesis through protein modification under P-deficient conditions. In the study, phosphate (Pi) starvation led to anthocyanin accumulations in soybean (Glycine max) leaves, accompanied with increased transcripts of a group of genes involved in anthocyanin synthesis. Meanwhile, transcripts of GmCSN5A/B, two members of the COP9 signalosome subunit 5 (CSN5) family, were up-regulated in both young and old soybean leaves by Pi starvation. Furthermore, overexpressing GmCSN5A and GmCSN5B in Arabidopsis thaliana significantly resulted in anthocyanin accumulations in shoots, accompanied with increased transcripts of gene functions in anthocyanin synthesis including AtPAL, AtCHS, AtF3H, AtF3'H, AtDFR, AtANS, and AtUF3GT only under P-deficient conditions. Taken together, these results strongly suggest that P deficiency leads to increased anthocyanin synthesis through enhancing expression levels of genes involved in anthocyanin synthesis, which could be regulated by GmCSN5A and GmCSN5B.

Selenium and anthocyanins share the same transcription factors R2R3MYB and bHLH in wheat.

Anthocyanins and selenium have vital biological functions for human and plants, they were investigated thoroughly and separately in plants. Previous studies indicated pigmented fruits and vegetables had higher selenium concentration, but whether there is a relationship between anthocyanins and selenium is unclear. In this study, a combined phenotypic and genotypic methodological approach was undertaken to explore the potential relationship between anthocyanins and selenium accumulation by using phenotypic investigation and RNA-seq analysis. The results showed that pigmented cultivars enrichment in Se is a general phenomenon observed for these tested species, this due to pigmented cultivars have higher Se efficiency absorption. Se flow direction mainly improve concentration of S-rich proteins of LMW-GS. This may be a result of the MYB and bHLH co-regulate anthocyanins biosynthesis and Se metabolism at the transcriptional level. This thesis addresses a neglected aspect of the relevant relationship between anthocyanins and selenium.

Pathway-based analysis of anthocyanin diversity in diploid potato.

Anthocyanin biosynthesis is one of the most studied pathways in plants due to the important ecological role played by these compounds and the potential health benefits of anthocyanin consumption. Given the interest in identifying new genetic factors underlying anthocyanin content we studied a diverse collection of diploid potatoes by combining a genome-wide association study and pathway-based analyses. By using an expanded SNP dataset, we identified candidate genes that had not been associated with anthocyanin variation in potatoes, namely a Myb transcription factor, a Leucoanthocyanidin dioxygenase gene and a vacuolar membrane protein. Importantly, a genomic region in chromosome 10 harbored the SNPs with strongest associations with anthocyanin content in GWAS. Some of these SNPs were associated with multiple anthocyanin compounds and therefore could underline the existence of pleiotropic genes or anthocyanin biosynthetic clusters. We identified multiple anthocyanin homologs in this genomic region, including four transcription factors and five enzymes that could be governing anthocyanin variation. For instance, a SNP linked to the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase gene, encoding the first enzyme in the phenylpropanoid biosynthetic pathway, was associated with all of the five anthocyanins measured. Finally, we combined a pathway analysis and GWAS of other agronomic traits to identify pathways related to anthocyanin biosynthesis in potatoes. We found that methionine metabolism and the production of sugars and hydroxycinnamic acids are genetically correlated to anthocyanin biosynthesis. The results contribute to the understanding of anthocyanins regulation in potatoes and can be used in future breeding programs focused on nutraceutical food.

The MIR-Domain of PbbHLH2 Is Involved in Regulation of the Anthocyanin Biosynthetic Pathway in "Red Zaosu" (PyrusBretschneideri Rehd.) Pear Fruit.

The N-terminal of Myc-like basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors (bHLH TFs) contains an interaction domain, namely the MYB-interacting region (MIR), which interacts with the R2R3-MYB proteins to regulate genes involved in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway. However, the functions of MIR-domain bHLHs in this pathway are not fully understood. In this study, PbbHLH2 containing the MIR-domain was identified and its function investigated. The overexpression of PbbHLH2 in "Zaosu" pear peel increased the anthocyanin content and the expression levels of late biosynthetic genes. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation showed that PbbHLH2 interacted with R2R3-MYB TFs PbMYB9, 10, and 10b in onion epidermal cells and confirmed that MIR-domain plays important roles in the interaction between the MIR-domain bHLH and R2R3-MYB TFs. Moreover, PbbHLH2 bound and activated the dihydroflavonol reductase promoter in yeast one-hybrid (Y1H) and dual-luciferase assays. Taken together these results suggested that the MIR domain of PbbHLH2 regulated anthocyanin biosynthesis in pear fruit peel.

Black rice cultivar from Java Island of Indonesia revealed genomic, proteomic, and anthocyanin nutritional value.

Black rice is considered to be functional food containing anthocyanins as bioactive compounds. This study examined the genomic and proteomic patterns in local black rice from Java Island, Indonesia, with attention to the mechanism of anthocyanin synthesis. Three kinds of black rice from Java Island, including black rice from East Java (BREJ), black rice from Central Java (BRCJ), and black rice from West Java (BRWJ), were studied in comparison to white rice (WREJ) and red rice (RREJ). Genomic profiling was done by simple sequence repeat (SSR) analysis, and sequencing of red coleoptile (Rc) and glycosyltransferase (GT) genes, followed by in silico analysis. Total anthocyanin was investigated by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography- diode array detector (UHPLC-DAD). The proteomic profiles were determined by liquid-chromatography and mass spectrometry of tryptic peptides. The SSR profiles showed a specific band in each black rice variant. The Rc gene exon-2 sequences were similar in the three black rice cultivars. The GT gene sequence was identified as a new variant that correlates with the purple stem, leaf, bran, and whole grain morphology seen exclusively in the BRWJ cultivar. The anthocyanin composition in Java black rice is diverse. The highest cyanidin level was seen in BRWJ and the highest level of peonidin-3-O-glucoside in BREJ. Proteomic profiling of the black rice cultivars demonstrated that the expression of proteins that might be related to the levels of anthocyanin synthesis varied. These studies conclude that the genomic, proteomic and anthocyanins composition of Java black rice cultivars may be used the improvement of their functional nutrition values.

Effect of benzothiadiazole treatment on quality and anthocyanin biosynthesis in plum fruit during storage at ambient temperature.

BACKGROUND: Plums tend to experience a reduction in fruit quality due to ripening and they deteriorate quickly during storage at room temperature. Benzothiadiazole (BTH) is a plant elicitor capable of inducing disease resistance in many crops. In this study, the effect of BTH treatment on fruit ripening, fruit quality, and anthocyanin biosynthesis in 'Taoxingli' plum was investigated. RESULTS: The results showed that BTH treatment could accelerate fruit ripening without affecting the incidence of fruit decay or the shelf life. Benzothiadiazole treatment improved the quality and consumer acceptability of 'Taoxingli' plums during storage by increasing the sweetness, red color formation, and the concentration of healthy antioxidant compounds. The BTH treatment could also effectively promote the biosynthesis of anthocyanin by enhancing the enzyme activities of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR), anthocyanidin synthase (ANS), and uridine diphosphate flavonoid 3-O-glucosyltransferase (UFGT) and up-regulating the gene expressions of PsPAL, PsCHI, PsDFR, PsANS, and PsUFGT during storage. CONCLUSION: Benzothiadiazole treatment could be a potential postharvest technology for improving fruit quality and consumer acceptability in harvested plum fruit. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Anthocyanin Pigments: Beyond Aesthetics.

Anthocyanins are polyphenol compounds that render various hues of pink, red, purple, and blue in flowers, vegetables, and fruits. Anthocyanins also play significant roles in plant propagation, ecophysiology, and plant defense mechanisms. Structurally, anthocyanins are anthocyanidins modified by sugars and acyl acids. Anthocyanin colors are susceptible to pH, light, temperatures, and metal ions. The stability of anthocyanins is controlled by various factors, including inter and intramolecular complexations. Chromatographic and spectrometric methods have been extensively used for the extraction, isolation, and identification of anthocyanins. Anthocyanins play a major role in the pharmaceutical; nutraceutical; and food coloring, flavoring, and preserving industries. Research in these areas has not satisfied the urge for natural and sustainable colors and supplemental products. The lability of anthocyanins under various formulated conditions is the primary reason for this delay. New gene editing technologies to modify anthocyanin structures in vivo and the structural modification of anthocyanin via semi-synthetic methods offer new opportunities in this area. This review focusses on the biogenetics of anthocyanins; their colors, structural modifications, and stability; their various applications in human health and welfare; and advances in the field.

Regulation of flavonoid biosynthesis pathway by a single or dual short-term CO2 treatment in black table grapes stored at low temperature.

The application of one or two short-term treatments with high levels of CO2 during 3 days at 0 °C maintained the quality of Autumn Royal table grapes (Vitis vinifera) during storage at 0 °C. We have analyzed how the application of a 3-day gaseous treatment, for one or two times at 0 °C, influences on common (VviPAL, VviCHS, VviCHI, VviF3'H, VviF3'5'H, VviF3H and VviLDOX) and branch-specific (VviFLS1, VviLAR1, VviLAR2, VviANR and VviUFGT) flavonoid gene expression in the skin of Autumn Royal table grapes. Likewise, the content of flavonols, flavan-3-ols and anthocyanins were identified with Q-TOF equipment and quantified by HPLC-quadrupole together with the total phenolic content and the antioxidant capacity by the ABTS and FRAP methods. Moreover, we have also used a solid-state voltammetry methodology to compare the effect of the application of one or two gaseous treatments in the skin of table grapes stored at 0 °C. Results revealed that the application of one or two gaseous treatments modulated the expression of flavonoid gene expression and the levels of catechin, in the case of one application, or quercetin-3-glucoside and five anthocyanins in fruit treated twice, maintaining their levels after 28 days of storage at 0 °C similar to those recorded in freshly harvested fruit. Satisfactorily, the electrochemical approach was useful to distinguish between treated and non-treated samples not only in the first stage of storage but also after 16 days.

FtMYB18 acts as a negative regulator of anthocyanin/proanthocyanidin biosynthesis in Tartary buckwheat.

KEY MESSAGE: FtMYB18 plays a role in the repression of anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins accumulation by strongly down-regulating the CHS and DFR genes in Tartary buckwheat, and the C5 motif plays an important role in this process. Anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins (PAs) are important flavonoids in Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.), which provides various vibrant color and stronge abiotic stress resistance. Their synthesis is generally regulated by MYB transcription factors at transcription level. However, the negative regulations of MYB and their effects on flavonol metabolism are poorly understood. A SG4-like MYB subfamily TF, FtMYB18, containing C5 motif was identified from Tartary buckwheat. The expression of FtMYB18 was not only showed a negative correlation with anthocyanins and PAs content but also strongly respond to MeJA and ABA. As far as the transgenic lines with FtMYB18 overexpression, anthocyanins and PAs accumulations were decreased through down-regulating expression levels of NtCHS and NtDFR in tobacco, AtDFR and AtTT12 in Arabidopsis, FtCHS, FtDFR and FtANS in Tartary buckwheat hairy roots, respectively. However, FtMYB18 showed no effect on the FLS gene expression and the metabolites content in flavonol synthesis branch. The further molecular interaction analysis indicated FtMYB18 could mediate the inhibition of anthocyanins and PAs synthesis by forming MBW transcriptional complex with FtTT8 and FtTTG1, or MYB-JAZ complex with FtJAZ1/-3/-4/-7. Importantly, in FtMYB18 mutant lines with C5 motif deletion (FtMYB18-C), both of anthocyanins and PAs accumulations had recovered to the similar level as that in wild type, which was attributed to the weakened MBW complex activity or the deficient molecular interaction between FtMYB18ΔC5 with FtJAZ3/-4. The results showed that FtMYB18 could suppress anthocyanins and PAs synthesis at transcription level through the specific interaction of C5 motif with other proteins in Tartary buckwheat.

Genetic and epigenetic dynamics affecting anthocyanin biosynthesis in potato cell culture.

Anthocyanins are antioxidant pigments widely used in drugs and food preparations. Flesh-coloured tubers of the cultivated potato Solanum tuberosum are important sources of different anthocyanins. Due to the high degree of decoration achieved by acylation, anthocyanins from potato are very stable and suitable for the food processing industry. The use of cell culture allows to extract anthocyanins on-demand, avoiding seasonality and consequences associated with land-based-tuber production. However, a well-known limit of cell culture is the metabolic instability and loss of anthocyanin production during successive subcultures. To get a general picture of mechanisms responsible for this instability, we explored both genetic and epigenetic regulation that may affect anthocyanin production in cell culture. We selected two clonally related populations of anthocyanin-producing (purple) and non-producing (white) potato cells. Through targeted molecular investigations, we identified and functionally characterized an R3-MYB, here named StMYBATV. This transcription factor can interact with bHLHs belonging to the MBW (R2R3-MYB, bHLH and WD40) anthocyanin activator complex and, potentially, may interfere with its formation. Genome methylation analysis revealed that, for several genomic loci, anthocyanin-producing cells were more methylated than clonally related white cells. In particular, we localized some methylation events in ribosomal protein-coding genes. Overall, our study explores novel molecular aspects associated with loss of anthocyanins in cell culture systems.

Integrated metabolomic and transcriptomic analysis of the anthocyanin regulatory networks in Salvia miltiorrhiza Bge. flowers.

BACKGROUND: The objectives of this study were to reveal the anthocyanin biosynthesis metabolic pathway in white and purple flowers of Salvia miltiorrhiza using metabolomics and transcriptomics, to identify different anthocyanin metabolites, and to analyze the differentially expressed genes involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis. RESULTS: We analyzed the metabolomics and transcriptomics data of S. miltiorrhiza flowers. A total of 1994 differentially expressed genes and 84 flavonoid metabolites were identified between the white and purple flowers of S. miltiorrhiza. Integrated analysis of transcriptomics and metabolomics showed that cyanidin 3,5-O-diglucoside, malvidin 3,5-diglucoside, and cyanidin 3-O-galactoside were mainly responsible for the purple flower color of S. miltiorrhiza. A total of 100 unigenes encoding 10 enzymes were identified as candidate genes involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis in S. miltiorrhiza flowers. Low expression of the ANS gene decreased the anthocyanin content but enhanced the accumulation of flavonoids in S. miltiorrhiza flowers. CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide valuable information on the anthocyanin metabolites and the candidate genes involved in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathways in S. miltiorrhiza.

Anthocyanin Induction by Drought Stress in the Calyx of Roselle Cultivars.

Abiotic factors can alter the chemical profile of crops and the number of compounds they contain. In this study, the anthocyanin and anthocyanidin contents, determined by ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC-MS/MS), and the colour attributes of the calyces of three cultivars of Hibiscus sabdariffa subjected to three water stress regimes during the stage of physiological maturity were investigated. The total anthocyanin content in calyx increased relative to the control content under a 65% moisture irrigation regime. Among the cultivars, UAN16-2 showed the greatest increases in the contents of cyanidin, delphinidin 3-O-glucoside, cyanidin 3-O-glucoside, and cyanidin 3-O-sambubioside. The content of cyanidin 3-O-sambubioside showed the greatest increase, increasing by 55% relative to the control level. The contents of these compounds are correlated with colour attributes such as luminosity. Water stress under the 33% moisture condition during plant development led to decreased anthocyanin contents in all of the roselle cultivars.

Accumulation of Anthocyanins through Overexpression of AtPAP1 in Solanum nigrum Lin. (Black Nightshade).

Black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) belongs to the Solanaceae family and is used as a medicinal herb with health benefits. It has been reported that the black nightshade plant contains various phytochemicals that are associated with antitumor activities. Here we employed a genetic approach to study the effects of overexpression of Arabidopsis thaliana production of anthocyanin pigment 1 (AtPAP1) in black nightshade. Ectopic expression of AtPAP1 resulted in enhanced accumulation of anthocyanin pigments in vegetative and reproductive tissues of the transgenic plants. Analysis of anthocyanin revealed that delphinidin 3-O-rutinoside-5-O-glucoside, delphinidin 3,5-O-diglucoside, delphinidin 3-O-rutinoside, petunidin 3-O-rutinoside (cis-p-coumaroyl)-5-O-glucoside, petunidin 3-(feruloyl)-rutinoside-5-glucoside, and malvidin 3-(feruloyl)-rutinoside-5-glucoside are highly induced in the leaves of AtPAP1 overexpression lines. Furthermore, ectopic expression of AtPAP1 evoked expression of early and late biosynthetic genes of the general phenylpropanoid and flavonoid pathways that include phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), cinnamate-4-hydroxylase (C4H), 4-coumarate CoA ligase (4CL), chalcone isomerase (CHI), and quinate hydroxycinnamoyl transferase (HCT), which suggests these genes might be transcriptional targets of AtPAP1 in black nightshade. Concomitantly, the total content of anthocyanin in the transgenic black nightshade plants was higher compared to the control plants, which supports phenotypic changes in color. Our data demonstrate that a major anthocyanin biosynthetic regulator, AtPAP1, can induce accumulation of anthocyanins in the heterologous system of black nightshade through the conserved flavonoid biosynthesis pathway in plants.

Stimulated biosynthesis of delphinidin-related anthocyanins in tea shoots reducing the quality of green tea in summer.

BACKGROUND: Greater proportions of purple tea buds and leaves usually appear in the summer, which seriously affects the color and taste quality of green tea products, yet the metabolism of purple tea shoots in summer remains unclear. Here, the metabolomic profiles and gene expression of related flavonoid metabolic pathways in the purple and normal green shoots of 'Longjing 43', and the quality of green tea made with these two phenotypes, were analyzed and compared. RESULTS: Differential metabolites identified using high-performance liquid chromatography-Orbitrap/mass spectrometry indicated that anthocyanin biosynthesis in purple leaves was enriched, with higher levels of anthocyanidins (delphinidin-hexose-coumaroyl showed the greatest increase), proanthocyanidins (oligomers of catechins) and kaempferol glycoside. Expression patterns of the genes ANR, ANS, FLS, LAR, C4H, PAL, CHI, CHS and DFR revealed that the metabolism of anthocyanin is positively regulated by high temperature and/or light levels in summer. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry results showed that, in purple tea shoots, the metabolism of carbohydrates was enriched whereas that of amino acids was diminished, while their mannose, fructose, d-galactose, sorbose and d-glucose contents were more than double those found in green leaves. A sensory evaluation confirmed that a greater quantity of purple shoots had a greater negative impact on green tea quality because of a bitter taste and dark color (leaves and infusions were tested). CONCLUSIONS: These results highlight the need for and possibility of improving commercial tea quality via cultivation that controls the temperature or light of tea gardens during the summer. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Alteration of flesh color and enhancement of bioactive substances via the stimulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis in 'Friar' plum fruit by low temperature and the removal.

'Friar' plum (Prunus salicina Lindl.) fruit were transferred to shelf life (25 °C) following different storage periods at low (0 °C) or intermediate (5 °C) temperature. The earliest flesh reddening appeared in plums during shelf life removed after 28 d at 0 °C and 14 d at 5 °C, respectively, in comparison with turning yellow in plums remained at 25 °C immediately after harvest. The flesh reddening developed rapidly thereafter. Anthocyanins, in particular, cyanidin 3-O-glucoside, significantly accumulated in the reddening tissue, and activities of enzymes associated with the phenylpropanoid pathway were considerably activated after the removal. The removal elicited extremely high ethylene production in plums, which might mediate the activation of the anthocyanin biosynthesis in response to cold stress signal. The results provided a potential approach for postharvest regulation of flesh color and accumulation of bioactive substances in plums, which could lead to attractive attributes and health-promoting effects on consumers.

Regulation of color transition in purple tea (Camellia sinensis).

MAIN CONCLUSION: Comparative proteomics and metabolomics study of juvenile green, light purple and dark purple leaf to identify key proteins and metabolites that putatively govern color transition in Camellia sinensis. Color transition from juvenile green to dark purple leaf in Camellia sinensis is a complex process and thought to be regulated by an intricate balance of genes, proteins and metabolites expression. A molecular-level understanding of proteins and metabolites expression is needed to define metabolic process underpinning color transition in C. sinensis. Here, purple leaf growth of C. sinensis cultivar was divided into three developmental stages viz. juvenile green (JG), light purple (LP) and dark purple (DP) leaf. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis revealed a clear morphological variation such as cell size, shape and texture as tea leaf undergoing color transition. Proteomic and metabolomic analyses displayed the temporal changes in proteins and metabolites that occur in color transition process. In total, 211 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were identified presumably involved in secondary metabolic processes particularly, flavonoids/anthocyanin biosynthesis, phytohormone regulation, carbon and nitrogen assimilation and photosynthesis, among others. Subcellular localization of three candidate proteins was further evaluated by their transient expression in planta. Interactome study revealed that proteins involved in primary metabolism, precursor metabolite, photosynthesis, phytohormones, transcription factor and anthocyanin biosynthesis were found to be interact directly or indirectly and thus, regulate color transition from JG to DP leaf. The present study not only corroborated earlier findings but also identified novel proteins and metabolites that putatively govern color transition in C. sinensis. These findings provide a platform for future studies that may be utilized for metabolic engineering/molecular breeding in an effort to develop more desirable traits.

Genomic Variance and Transcriptional Comparisons Reveal the Mechanisms of Leaf Color Affecting Palatability and Stressed Defense in Tea Plant.

Leaves are one of the most important organs of plants, and yet, the association between leaf color and consumable traits remains largely unclear. Tea leaves are an ideal study system with which to investigate the mechanism of how leaf coloration affects palatability, since tea is made from the leaves of the crop Camellia sinensis. Our genomic resequencing analysis of a tea cultivar ZiJuan (ZJ) with purple leaves and altered flavor revealed genetic variants when compared with the green-leaf, wild type cultivar YunKang(YK). RNA-Seq based transcriptomic comparisons of the bud and two youngest leaves in ZJ and YK identified 93%, 9% and 5% expressed genes that were shared in YK- and ZJ-specific cultivars, respectively. A comparison of both transcript abundance and particular metabolites revealed that the high expression of gene UFGT for anthocyanin biosynthesis is responsible for purple coloration, which competes with the intermediates for catechin-like flavanol biosynthesis. Genes with differential expression are enriched in response to stress, heat and defense, and are casually correlated with the environmental stress of ZJ plant origin in the Himalayas. In addition, the highly expressed C4H and LDOX genes for synthesizing flavanol precursors, ZJ-specific CLH1 for degrading chlorophyll, alternatively spliced C4H and FDR and low photosynthesis also contributed to the altered color and flavor of ZJ. Thus, our study provides a better molecular understanding of the effect of purple coloration on leaf flavor, and helps to guide future engineering improvement of palatability.

Ectopic expression of tea MYB genes alter spatial flavonoid accumulation in alfalfa (Medicago sativa).

Flavonoids are one of the largest secondary metabolite groups, which are widely present in plants. Flavonoids include anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, flavonols and isoflavones. In particular, proanthocyanidins possess beneficial effects for ruminant animals in preventing lethal pasture bloat. As a major legume forage, alfalfa (Medicago sativa) contains little proanthocyanidins in foliage to combat bloat. In an attempt to improve proanthocyanidin content in alfalfa foliage, we over-expressed two MYB transcription factors (CsMYB5-1 and CsMYB5-2) from tea plant that is rich in proanthocyanidins. We showed that, via targeted metabolite and transcript analyses, the transgenic alfalfa plants accumulated higher levels of flavonoids in stems/leaves than the control, in particular anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins. Over-expression of CsMYB5-1 and CsMYB5-2 induced the expression levels of genes involved in flavonoid pathway, especially anthocyanin/proanthocyanidin-specific pathway genes DFR, ANS and ANR in stems/leaves. Both anthocyanin/proanthocyanidin content and the expression levels of several genes were conversely decreased in flowers of the transgenic lines than in control. Our results indicated that CsMYB5-1 and CsMYB5-2 differently regulate anthocyanins/proanthocyanidins in stems/leaves and flowers. Our study provides a guide for increasing anthocyanin/proanthocyanidin accumulation in foliage of legume forage corps by genetic engineering. These results also suggest that it is feasible to cultivate new varieties for forage production to potentially solve pasture bloat, by introducing transcription factors from typical plants with high proanthocyanidin level.

Engineering Lactococcus lactis for the production of unusual anthocyanins using tea as substrate.

Plant material rich in anthocyanins has been historically used in traditional medicines, but only recently have the specific pharmacological properties of these compounds been the target of extensive studies. In addition to their potential to modulate the development of various diseases, coloured anthocyanins are valuable natural alternatives commonly used to replace synthetic colourants in food industry. Exploitation of microbial hosts as cell factories is an attractive alternative to extraction of anthocyanins and other flavonoids from plant sources or chemical synthesis. In this study, we present the lactic acid bacterium Lactococcus lactis as an ideal host for the production of high-value plant-derived bioactive anthocyanins using green tea as substrate. Besides the anticipated red-purple compounds cyanidin and delphinidin, orange and yellow pyranoanthocyanidins with unexpected methylation patterns were produced from green tea by engineered L. lactis strains. The pyranoanthocyanins are currently attracting significant interest as one of the most important classes of anthocyanin derivatives and are mainly formed during the aging of wine, contributing to both colour and sensory experience.