Risk-based scoring and genetic identification for anisakids in frozen fish products from Atlantic FAO areas.

BACKGROUND: The presence of Anisakis larvae in fish represents a major public health concern. Effective risk management procedures should be applied to prevent heavily infected products from reaching the market. The aim of the study is to provide preliminary data on parasite exposure and risk classification in frozen fish products by applying a risk categorization scheme (site, abundance, density and epidemiology - SADE) and Fish Parasite Rating (FPR) method. Fish and cephalopods samples (N = 771) from 5 different FAO Atlantic areas were examined and categorized after an accurate visual inspection and a chloro-peptic digestion. RESULTS: In 25 out of 33 fish species parasite larvae were found. 10897 anisakids larvae were collected and identified to genus level. Molva dypterygia, Conger conger, Zeus faber and Aphanopus carbo were shown to be the most highly infected species. SADE and FPR scores were 1 and poor, respectively, for the referred species, because of the disseminated Anisakis infection and commercial rejection. CONCLUSION: SADE/FPR method showed high specificity and accuracy. The information provided in this work could be used in early warning systems for the detection of parasites in fishery products and might help fishing industries in establishing management strategies for infected stocks in terms of cost saving decisions.

Occurrence of Anisakis and Hysterothylacium larvae in commercial fish from Balearic Sea (Western Mediterranean Sea).

This study investigates the occurrence of anisakids and raphidascarids in commercial fish from Balearic Sea (Western Mediterranean). A total of 335 fish including 19 black anglerfish (Lophius budegassa), 33 white anglerfish (L. piscatorius), 129 European hake (Merluccius merluccius), 30 red mullet (Mullus barbatus), and 124 striped mullet (M. surmuletus) were examined using enzymatic digestion. A total of 948 nematode larvae were isolated (prevalence 52.53%) being the highest prevalence observed in striped mullet. Forty-six larvae were identified using molecular analyses which included PCR and sequencing of the 629-bp fragment of mitochondrial cox2 gene region. Anisakis pegreffii (80.43%), A. physeteris (8.69%), Hysterothylacium fabri (6.52%), and A. simplex (4.35%) were detected based on molecular analyses of larvae. Total nematode prevalence was positively correlated with weight, length, condition factor, and maturity stage of the host and also with fishing ground depth. Statistical differences between total nematode prevalence and geographical sector of capture were observed when fishing hauls were grouped according to the abundance of sperm whales or common bottlenose dolphins. The results also corroborate that fishing water depth may play an important role in anisakid and raphidascarid parasitization.

Perkinsus olseni and P. chesapeaki detected in a survey of perkinsosis of various clam species in Galicia (NW Spain) using PCR-DGGE as a screening tool.

A survey on perkinsosis was performed involving 15 locations scattered along the Galician coast (NW Spain) and four clam species with high market value (Ruditapes decussatus, Ruditapes philippinarum, Venerupis corrugata and Polititapes rhomboides). The prevalence of Perkinsus parasites was estimated by PCR using genus-specific primers. The highest percentage of PCR-positive cases for perkinsosis corresponded to clams R. decussatus and V. corrugata, while lower values were detected in R. philippinarum and no case was found in P. rhomboides. The discrimination of Perkinsus species was performed by PCR-RFLP and by a new PCR-DGGE method developed in this study. Perkinsus olseni was identified in every clam species, except in P. rhomboides, using both PCR-DGGE and PCR-RFLP. Additionally, Perkinsus chesapeaki was only detected by PCR-DGGE infecting two Manila clams R. philippinarum from the same location, reporting the first case in Galicia. P. chesapeaki identification was further confirmed by in situ hybridisation assay and phylogenetic analysis of ITS region and LSU rDNA.

Update of information on perkinsosis in NW Mediterranean coast: Identification of Perkinsus spp. (Protista) in new locations and hosts.

This study addressed perkinsosis in commercially important mollusc species in the western Mediterranean area. Perkinsus olseni was found in Santa Gilla Lagoon (Sardinia) infecting Ruditapes decussatus, Cerastoderma glaucum and Venerupis aurea, in Balearic Islands infecting Venus verrucosa and in Delta de l'Ebre (NE Spain) parasitising Ruditapes philippinarum and R. decussatus. Perkinsus mediterraneus was detected infecting Ostrea edulis from the Gulf of Manfredonia (SE Italy) and Alacant (E Spain), V. verrucosa and Arca noae from Balearic Islands and Chlamys varia from Balearic Islands, Alacant and Delta de l'Ebre.

Species-specific oligonucleotide probe for detection of Bonamia exitiosa (Haplosporidia) using in situ hybridisation assay.

Bonamiosis is a disease affecting various oyster species and causing oyster mass mortalities worldwide. The protozoans Bonamia exitiosa and B. ostreae (Haplosporidia) are included in the list of notifiable diseases of the World Organisation for Animal Health as the causative agents of this disease. Although the geographic range of both species was considered different for years, both species are now known to co-occur in some European areas affecting the same host, Ostrea edulis, which strengthens the need of species-specific methods to unequivocally identify the species of Bonamia. An oligonucleotide probe for specific detection of B. exitiosa (BEX_ITS) was designed to be used in in situ hybridisation (ISH) assays. ISH assay with BEX_ITS probe showed species-specificity and more sensitivity than traditional histology to visualise the parasite inside host tissue. ISH assay showed that the oyster gonad was the area where the parasite was most frequently located, and was the exclusive organ of infection in some oysters. A recommendation arising from the study is that more than 1 organ (including gonad and gills) should be used for PCR-based diagnosis of B. exitiosa, to maximise the sensitivity.

Infection of Manila clams Ruditapes philippinarum from Galicia (NW Spain) with a Mikrocytos-like parasite.

The name 'microcells' is frequently used to refer to small-sized unicellular stages of molluscan parasites of the genera Bonamia (Rhizaria, Haplosporidia) and Mikrocytos (Rhizaria). Histological examination of Manila clams Ruditapes philippinarum revealed microcells in the connective tissue of adductor muscle, foot, mantle, gills, siphon and visceral mass. The clams had been collected from 4 beds on the coast of Galicia, Spain. The prevalence of these microcells ranged from 73 to 93% in surface clams and from 3 to 33% in buried clams. However, the detection of brown ring disease signs in clams from every bed prevented us from making the assumption that the microcells alone were responsible for clam mortality. PCR assays using primer pairs designed to detect Bonamia spp. and haplosporidians gave negative results, whereas positive results were obtained with primers for the genus Mikrocytos. A consensus sequence of 1670 bp of the ribosomal gene complex of the microcells was obtained. It contained a section of the 18S region, the whole first internal transcribed spacer, the 5.8S region, the second internal transcribed spacer and a section of the 28S region. Comparison of this sequence with those of M. mackini infecting Crassostrea gigas and Mikrocytos sp. infecting Ostrea edulis showed that the microcells of Galician clams were the most divergent among the compared parasites. This is the first report of a Mikrocytos-like parasite infecting Manila clams. Care must be taken to avoid the spread of this parasite through Manila clam transfers.

Oyster parasites Bonamia ostreae and B. exitiosa co-occur in Galicia (NW Spain): spatial distribution and infection dynamics.

Bonamiosis constrains the flat oyster industry worldwide. The protistan species Bonamia ostreae had been considered solely responsible for this disease in Europe, but the report of B. exitiosa infecting Ostrea edulis 5 yr ago in Galicia (NW Spain), and subsequently in other European countries, raised the question of the relevance of each species in bonamiosis. The spatial distribution of B. exitiosa and B. ostreae in Galicia was addressed by sampling 7 natural O. edulis beds and 3 culture raft areas, up to 3 times in the period 2009 to 2010. B. ostreae infected flat oysters in every natural bed and every raft culture area. True B. exitiosa infections (histological diagnosis) were detected in every raft culture area but only in 2 natural beds, i.e. in 4 rías. PCR-positive results for B. exitiosa were recorded in 4 out of 5 beds where true infections were not found, thus the occurrence of B. exitiosa in those 4 beds cannot be ruled out. Additionally, 4 cohorts of hatchery-produced oyster spat were transferred to a raft to analyse Bonamia spp. infection dynamics through oyster on-growing. The highest percentages of oysters PCR-positive for both Bonamia spp. were recorded in the first months of on-growing; other peaks of PCR-positive diagnosis were successively lower. Differences in the percentage of PCR-positive cases and in the prevalence of true infection between B. exitiosa and B. ostreae through on-growing were not significant. Our results support that B. exitiosa is adapted to infect O. edulis in the Galician marine ecosystem.

Cockle Cerastoderma edule fishery collapse in the Ría de Arousa (Galicia, NW Spain) associated with the protistan parasite Marteilia cochillia.

The highest shellfishery catch in Galicia (NW Spain) has traditionally been cockle Cerastoderma edule. The shellfish bed located in Lombos do Ulla (Ría de Arousa) used to be among those with the highest cockle production; however, cockle mortality rate increased sharply in this bed in April 2012, reaching 100% in May 2012. Salinity and temperature were discounted as potential causes of the mortality. Marteiliosis, which was first detected in February 2012 and reached 100% prevalence in April 2012, was identified as the most probable cause. Marteiliosis had never been detected in Galician cockles, but extensive surveillance of the Galician coast in May to July 2012 detected marteiliosis in most cockle beds of the Ría de Arousa, whereas it was not found in other rías; 2 mo later, the cockle catch in the Ría de Arousa became negligible. Examination of the aetiological agent of marteiliosis with light and transmission electron microscopy supported its assignation to the genus Marteilia; morphological features showed similarity, but not complete identity, with the recently described species M. cochillia Carrasco et al., 2013. Regarding its molecular characterisation, a consensus sequence of 4433 bp containing a partial sequence of the intergenic spacer region, the complete 18S rRNA gene and a partial sequence of the first internal transcribed spacer region was obtained. The obtained sequences were compared with those available for Marteilia spp. and other Paramyxida. Molecular data support that this parasite corresponds to the species M. cochillia, and a PCR assay was designed for its specific diagnosis. The association of huge cockle mortality with M. cochillia infection urges extreme caution to avoid spreading this disease.

Fish feed composition by high-throughput sequencing analysis: Parasite risk assessment.

The use of wild small fish species as feed for aquaculture has clearly an economic incentive by speeding the growth of farmed species. Since feed ingredients are sourced from wild fisheries the farmed species could contain natural contaminants which may introduce food safety concerns. In this study, we used High-Throughput Sequencing (HTS) to explore the whole DNA profile of ten dry commercial feeds commonly used by Spanish fish farming companies. The feeds were mainly made of species within the genus Sprattus, Ammodytes and Clupea, and vegetables of the genus Triticum. In the feeds, DNA sequences of parasitic nematodes of fishes (˂1 % total OTUs) were also identified. A taxonomic assignment of query sequences, using a phylogeny-based approach, estimation of pairwise nucleotide identities within and between sequence groups and haplotype network analysis, allow assign short query sequences to the species Phocanema krabbei (Anisakidae) and Hysterothylacium aduncum (Rhaphidascarididae). Both species were identified as ingredient in two and six fish feeds, respectively. This result is of highly concern regarding dietetic recommendations to sensitized patients to anisakids, considering the growing evidence on the possible allergenic potential of both genera, and the recent data on the transfer of anisakid heat-resistant allergens from fishmeal to farm and aquaculture animals.

Species-specific diagnostic assays for Bonamia ostreae and B. exitiosa in European flat oyster Ostrea edulis: conventional, real-time and multiplex PCR.

Bonamia ostreae and B. exitiosa have caused mass mortalities of various oyster species around the world and co-occur in some European areas. The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) has included infections with both species in the list of notifiable diseases. However, official methods for species-specific diagnosis of either parasite have certain limitations. In this study, new species-specific conventional PCR (cPCR) and real-time PCR techniques were developed to diagnose each parasite species. Moreover, a multiplex PCR method was designed to detect both parasites in a single assay. The analytical sensitivity and specificity of each new method were evaluated. These new procedures were compared with 2 OIE-recommended methods, viz. standard histology and PCR-RFLP. The new procedures showed higher sensitivity than the OIE recommended ones for the diagnosis of both species. The sensitivity of tests with the new primers was higher using oyster gills and gonad tissue, rather than gills alone. The lack of a 'gold standard' prevented accurate estimation of sensitivity and specificity of the new methods. The implementation of statistical tools (maximum likelihood method) for the comparison of the diagnostic tests showed the possibility of false positives with the new procedures, although the absence of a gold standard precluded certainty. Nevertheless, all procedures showed negative results when used for the analysis of oysters from a Bonamia-free area.

A scoring system approach for the parasite predictive assessment of fish lots: a proof of concept with anisakids.

A total of 982 individuals distributed in 11 lots belonging to 10 fish species from three Atlantic FAO fishing areas were sampled and examined to detect the presence of anisakid larvae in fish muscle. After hazard identification by genetic sequencing and exposure assessment by anatomic extent and demographic characterization of infection, all data were fitted for each fish species to a new proposed scoring schema of parasite prediction. In the absence of a criterion standard method for inspection and precise definition of the quantum satis for parasites in contaminated fish lots, the inspection rating scheme called SADE (Site of infection, Assurance of quality, Demography, Epidemiology) may help fish industries to precisely handle and to evaluate the likely outcome of infected fish lots after being diagnosed. For this purpose, a supporting flow diagram for decision was defined and suggested. This new performance assessment tool has the aim of staging fish lots, thus helping in planning manufacture, commercial, and research decisions during self-management programs. This novel scoring system provides an improved inspection format by implementing the occurrence stratification for parasites to guide Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) programs for the uniform exchange of information among fish industries, administration and researchers, thus facilitating standardization and communication. In the future, this scoring version could be validated (in terms of classification and wording) for similar overall predictive purposes in other muscular parasites infecting seafood products.

Population Genetic Structure of Anisakis simplex Infecting the European Hake from North East Atlantic Fishing Grounds.

The European hake, one of the most commercially valuable species in ICES fishing areas, is considered an important neglected source of zoonotic risk by nematode parasites belonging to the genus Anisakis. Merluccius merluccius is, by far, the most important host of Anisakis spp. at the European fishing grounds, in terms of demographic infection values, and carries the highest parasite burden. These high parasite population densities within an individual fish host offer a chance to explore new sources of variations for the genetic structure of Anisakis spp. populations. A total of 873 Anisakis spp. third-stage larvae, originally sampled from viscera and muscular sections of hake collected at ten fishing grounds, were primarily identified using ITS rDNA region as molecular marker. After that, we used mtDNA cox2 gene to reveal the high haplotype diversity and the lack of genetic structure for A. simplex. Dominant haplotypes were shared among the different fishing areas and fish sections analyzed. Results indicate a clear connection of A. simplex from European hake along the Northern North Sea to the Portuguese coast, constituting a single genetic population but revealing a certain level of genetic sub-structuring on the Northwest coast of Scotland. This study also provides useful information to advance the understanding of parasite speciation to different fish host tissues or microenvironments.

Comparison of haemocytic parameters among flat oyster Ostrea edulis stocks with different susceptibility to bonamiosis and the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas.

Farming of the flat oyster Ostrea edulis in Europe is severely constrained by the protozoan Bonamia ostreae. The introduction of the resistant species Crassostrea gigas has been a relief for the farmers, while the pilot programmes to select O. edulis strains resistant to bonamiosis performed in various countries can be seen as a promising strategy to minimise the effects of bonamiosis. However, the physiological bases of this differential susceptibility remain unknown. A search for an explanation of the intra and interspecific differences in oyster susceptibility to bonamiosis was accomplished by comparing some immune parameters among various O. edulis stocks and C. gigas. On December 2003, naïve and Bonamia-relatively resistant flat oysters from Ireland, Galician flat oysters and Pacific oysters C. gigas were deployed in a Galician area affected by bonamiosis; haemolymph samples were taken in February and May 2004. A new oyster deployment at the same place was carried out on June 2004 and haemolymph sampling was performed on April 2005. On November 2004, new sets of Irish flat oysters and C. gigas were deployed in Ireland and haemolymph sampling was performed in June 2005. Various haemocytic parameters were measured: total and differential haemocyte count, phagocytic ability, respiratory burst (superoxide anion [O(2)(-)] and hydrogen peroxide [H(2)O(2)]) and nitric oxide [NO] production. The comparison of the parameters was carried out at 3 levels: (1) between O. edulis and C. gigas, (2) among O. edulis stocks with different susceptibility to bonamiosis, and (3) between Bonamia-infected and non infected O. edulis. In addition, haemocyte-B. ostreaein vitro encounters were performed to analyse interspecific differences in the haemocytic respiratory burst, using flow cytometry. Significant differences associated with total and differential haemocyte count, and respiratory burst between O. edulis and C. gigas were detected, which could be linked to differences in susceptibility to bonamiosis between both species. Additionally, significant changes in total and differential haemocyte count, and respiratory burst of O. edulis associated with B. ostreae infection were found. However, no consistent difference in any haemocyte parameter between the O. edulis stocks involved in the study was recorded.

Microsatellite marker development in the protozoan parasite Perkinsus olseni.

The analysis of an enriched partial genomic library and of public expressed sequence tag (EST) resources allowed the characterization of the first microsatellite loci in the protozoan parasite Perkinsus olseni. Clonal cultures from laboratory isolates derived from infected clams Ruditapes decussatus (from Spain), R. philippinarum (from Spain and Japan), and Austrovenus stutchburyi (from New Zealand) were used for the characterization of 12 microsatellites. Low variation was detected at most loci, with the number of alleles at polymorphic loci ranging from 2 to 7 (average 3.20 +/- 0.51) and gene diversity from 0.11 to 0.79 (average 0.40 +/- 0.07). Preliminary results show that (1) isolates of P. olseni are diploid cells, and (2) multiple infections can occur within a single host. Eight of the loci analyzed successfully cross-amplified in the congeneric species P. mediterraneus. These microsatellite markers will be useful to analyze in detail the population genetic structure of P. olseni, crucial for the efficient management of this parasitic disease.

Molecular cloning and expression analysis of interferon regulatory factor-1 (IRF-1) of turbot and sea bream.

The interferon regulatory factor (IRF) family comprises transcription factors that regulate the expression of interferon and interferon-related cytokines. Using the RACE technique, we have determined the complete cDNA sequence of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) and sea bream (Sparus aurata) IRFs. These sequences shared characteristics with other IRFs of fish, mammals and birds, and showed high similarity with IRF-1. Indeed, they were included in the IRF-1 cluster of the phylogenetic tree constructed with IRF-1 and IRF-2 sequences of several organisms, and presented a low number of basic amino acid residues in the carboxy-terminal end of the proteins. All of these characteristics led to the identification of turbot and sea bream IRFs as IRF-1. Two IRF-1 sequences were obtained for both turbot and sea bream, and we named them turbot/sea bream IRF-1a and IRF-1b. Turbot IRF-1a differed from turbot IRF-1b in four nucleotides. The presence of both IRF types in cDNA from 45 turbot livers was determined by RFLP, suggesting the duplication of the gene. Sea bream IRF-1b presented a deletion of 121bp in its ORF compared to sea bream IRF-1a, and since both IRF types were present in all 25 cDNAs analyzed by PCR, we hypothesized that the truncated sea bream IRF-1b was probably an alternative splicing product. Turbot and sea bream IRF-1 expression was constitutive in every analyzed organ, as reported before for other fish species. Poly I:C significantly stimulated turbot IRF-1 expression in muscle, spleen and kidney 24 h post-treatment, while viral haemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) induced a differential expression of this factor in kidney 8 h after infection. These results do not agree with those previously reported for flounder and trout IRF. Other expression experiments with turbot leukocytes stimulated in vitro with poly I:C and with brain and kidney of sea bream infected with nodavirus did not bring out differential IRF expression levels in stimulated samples with respect to controls.

Molecular identification of Anisakis and Hysterothylacium larvae in commercial cephalopods from the Spanish Mediterranean coast.

This study aims to investigate the occurrence of nematode larvae in commercial cephalopods in the Western Mediterranean Sea. A total of 202 animals comprising 123 broadtail shortfin squid (Illex coindetii), 34 European squid (Loligo vulgaris) and 45 common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) were examined using enzymatic digestion. A total of 31 larvae were isolated (prevalence: 14.6%) and identified using molecular analyses which included PCR and sequencing of the ITS (ITS1-5.8S rDNA-ITS2) region. Phylogenetic tree inferred from ITS sequences yielded supported relationships for Anisakis (P: 12.2%) and Hysterothylacium species (P: 4.1%). All parasites were found parasitizing I. coindetii and, as expected, A. pegreffii presented the highest prevalence (11.4%). A. physeteris was also found with a lower prevalence (1.6%) but confirming the role of the broadtail shortfin squid as paratenic host and, its potential host for anisakidosis transmission. A hybrid larva between Anisakis simplex and A. pegreffi was also identified. All Anisakis larvae were found within the visceral cavity; in contrast most of the Hysterothylacium larvae were isolated from the mantle. A significant correlation was found between total nematode prevalence and depth, explained by the presence of larger broadtail shortfin squids inhabiting deeper depths. Therefore, the results obtained in the present study improve the knowledge of the occurrence of Anisakis and Hysterothylacium species in the I. coindetii from the Spanish Mediterranean Sea highlighting the importance of considering I. coindetii as a potential hazard for humans if it is consumed raw or not well cooked and the need of further research in other cephalopods.

Whaleworms as a tag to map zones of heavy-metal pollution.

Biological monitoring refers to the use of living organisms to evaluate environmental conditions. Of particular relevance to the health of marine ecosystems is the improvement of methodologies of biological monitoring to provide highly ecologically sensitive indices of exposure. We have shown that anisakid nematodes, a parasite group widely distributed in oceans that infects a wide range of host species, can accumulate essential and non-essential metals to levels far in excess of their host tissues. The fact that they could be used as biomarkers of trace-metal contamination in studies of environmental impact suggests a potential use as a monitor species in a marine ecosystem under anthropogenic stress because they might produce a warning or alert signal of high ecological relevance.

SSU rDNA analysis of Kudoa rosenbuschi (Myxosporea) from the Argentinean hake Merluccius hubbsi.

The cloning and sequencing of the small subunit (SSU) ribosomal DNA gene from Kudoa rosenbuschi (myxosporean species associated with post-mortem myoliquefaction process in the Argentinean hake Merluccius hubbsi) is reported. The SSU rDNA was found to contain 1740 bp with a single polymorphic site with either a C or T at position 221. The sequence data obtained in this study and those known sequences of Kudoa species deposited in the GenBank were all analyzed to construct a phylogenetic tree. Nucleotide sequences showed the highest degree of identity with K. funduli, followed by K. miniauriculata, K. clupeidae and K. dianae. Phylogenetic analysis placed K. rosenbuschi in the same branch of K. clupeidae and K. funduli, and showed it to be closely related to K. dianae, K. paniformis and K. miniauriculata.

Cloning and characterization of neoplasia-related genes in flat oyster Ostrea edulis.

Bonamiosis and disseminated neoplasia (DN) are the most important diseases affecting cultured flat oysters Ostrea edulis in Galicia (NW Spain). Previous research using suppresive substraction hybridisation that had been performed addressing the molecular basis of DN as well as the induction and development of the disease in oysters, yielded the whole open reading frame of nine genes: XBP-1, RACK, NDPk, C1qTNF, RPA3, SAP18, p23, ubiquitin and ferritin. These nine genes were characterized in this study. The phylogenetic relationships for each gene were studied using minimum-evolution methods. Quantitative-PCR assays were also developed to analyse the modulation of the expression of these genes by bonamiosis and disseminated neoplasia. Gene expression profiles were studied in haemolymph cells and in various organs (gill, gonad, mantle and digestive gland) of oysters affected by bonamiosis, disseminated neoplasia, both diseases and in non-affected oysters (control). The expression of XBP-1, NDPk, RPA3, SAP18 and ferritin increased in haemolymph cells of oysters with heavy bonamiosis. The expression of C1qTNF; SAP18 and p23 increased in haemolymph cells of oysters with DN. The expression of XBP-1, RACK, NDPk, RPA3 and p23 significantly increased in haemolymph cells of oysters affected by both diseases. There were changes in the expression of a number of genes in different organs depeding on disease stage: RACK expression increased in gills of oysters with bonamiosis, XBP-1 increased in mantle and digestive organs of oysters with light DN and RPA3 expression increased in gonads of oysters with heavy bonamiosis and heavy neoplasia.

Molecular characterisation of TNF, AIF, dermatopontin and VAMP genes of the flat oyster Ostrea edulis and analysis of their modulation by diseases.

Bonamiosis and disseminated neoplasia (DN) are the most important diseases affecting cultured flat oysters (Ostrea edulis) in Galicia (NW Spain). Previous research of the response of O. edulis against bonamiosis by suppression subtractive hybridisation yielded a partial expressed sequence tag of tumour necrosis factor (TNF) and allograft inflammatory factor (AIF), as well as the whole open reading frame for dermatopontin and vesicle-associated membrane (VAMP). Herein, the complete open reading frames of TNF and AIF genes were determined by the rapid amplification of cDNA, and the deduced amino acid sequences of the four genes were characterised. Phylogenetic relationships for each gene were studied using maximum likelihood parameters. Quantitative-PCR assays were also performed in order to analyse the modulation of the expression of these genes by bonamiosis and disseminated neoplasia. Gene expression profiles were studied in haemolymph cells and in various organs (gill, gonad, mantle and digestive gland) of oysters affected by bonamiosis, DN, and both diseases with regard to non-affected oysters (control). TNF expression in haemolymph cells was up-regulated at heavy stage of bonamiosis but its expression was not affected by DN. AIF expression was up-regulated at heavy stage of bonamiosis in haemolymph cells and mantle, which is associated with heavy inflammatory response, and in haemolymph cells of oysters affected by DN. AIF expression was, however, down-regulated in other organs as gills and gonads. Dermatopontin expression was down-regulated in haemolymph cells and digestive gland of oysters affected by bonamiosis, but DN had no significant effect on its expression. Gills and gonads showed up-regulation of dermatopontin expression associated with bonamiosis. There were significant differences in the expression of TNF and VAMP depending on the bonamiosis intensity stage whereas no significant differences were detected between light and heavy severity degrees of DN for the studied genes. VAMP expression showed also differences among haemolymph cells and the organs studied. The occurrence of both diseases in oysters involved haemolymph cell gene expression patterns different from those associated to each disease separately: no significant effect was observed in TNF expression, dermatopontin was up-regulated and marked up-regulation of AIF and VAMP was recorded, which suggests a multiplier effect of the combination of both diseases for the latter two genes.