European fitness landscape for children and adolescents: updated reference values, fitness maps and country rankings based on nearly 8 million test results from 34 countries gathered by the FitBack network.

OBJECTIVES: (1) To develop reference values for health-related fitness in European children and adolescents aged 6-18 years that are the foundation for the web-based, open-access and multilanguage fitness platform (FitBack); (2) to provide comparisons across European countries. METHODS: This study builds on a previous large fitness reference study in European youth by (1) widening the age demographic, (2) identifying the most recent and representative country-level data and (3) including national data from existing fitness surveillance and monitoring systems. We used the Assessing Levels of PHysical Activity and fitness at population level (ALPHA) test battery as it comprises tests with the highest test-retest reliability, criterion/construct validity and health-related predictive validity: the 20 m shuttle run (cardiorespiratory fitness); handgrip strength and standing long jump (muscular strength); and body height, body mass, body mass index and waist circumference (anthropometry). Percentile values were obtained using the generalised additive models for location, scale and shape method. RESULTS: A total of 7 966 693 test results from 34 countries (106 datasets) were used to develop sex-specific and age-specific percentile values. In addition, country-level rankings based on mean percentiles are provided for each fitness test, as well as an overall fitness ranking. Finally, an interactive fitness platform, including individual and group reporting and European fitness maps, is provided and freely available online (www.fitbackeurope.eu). CONCLUSION: This study discusses the major implications of fitness assessment in youth from health, educational and sport perspectives, and how the FitBack reference values and interactive web-based platform contribute to it. Fitness testing can be conducted in school and/or sport settings, and the interpreted results be integrated in the healthcare systems across Europe.

A multi-modal training programme to improve physical activity, physical fitness and perceived physical ability in obese children.

Actual and perceived physical abilities are important correlates of physical activity (PA) and fitness, but little research has explored these relationships over time in obese children. This study was designed: (a) to assess the feasibility of a multi-modal training programme promoting changes in PA, fundamental motor skills and real and perceived physical abilities of obese children; and (b) to explore cross-sectional and longitudinal relationships between real and perceived physical competence in boys and girls. Forty-one participants (9.2 ± 1.2 years) were assessed before and after an 8-month intervention with respect to body composition, physical fitness, self-reported PA and perceived physical ability. After treatment, obese children reported improvements in the body mass index, PA levels, gross motor performance and actual and perceived physical abilities. Real and perceived physical competence was correlated in boys, but not in girls. Results indicate that a multi-modal programme focused on actual and perceived physical competence as associated with the gradual increase in the volume of activity might be an effective strategy to improve adherence of the participants and to increase the lifelong exercise skills of obese children.

Analysis of self-perceived use of spectrum of teaching styles in Italian physical education teachers.

Introduction: The present study aims to assess PE teachers' perception about the use of teaching styles during curricular lessons. Methods: The sample involved a total of 83 PE teachers (M = 41, F = 42, main age = 43,74 ± 10,76) divided according to years of service (0-4 = 36%, 5-10 = 34%, and over 10 = 30%) and academic training (Higher Institutes of Physical Education = 44% and master's degree = 56%). Teachers complete a digitalized version of a self-produced questionnaire to assess how many times they use each teaching styles during the last month. Results: Results show that (a) reproduction rather than production teaching styles were often used, while reproduction teachings styles were most frequently used regardless of years of service. Discussion: Future research should investigate PE teacher's behavior to enhance the quality of physical education in school.

The "thinking system" in a new school concept: A rhythmic teaching approach in physical education to develop creativity.

System Thinking is an actual construct supported by several scientific evidence that offer a perspective on how phenomena relate. Rhythm methodology, teaching-learning, and enjoyment in physical education are the main system elements we hypothesize interacting closely to determine direct or mediated effects on motor creativity and rhythmic perceptive capacity. Seventy-six elementary and middle school students (8.9 ± 2.1 years) were randomly assigned to two groups: a) an intervention group that received a physical education lesson based on rhythmic methodology and b) a control group that received conventional lessons without specific rhythmic interventions. Participants were engaged in eight physical education lessons lasting one hour each for eight weeks. Tests and questionnaires were administered before and after the intervention to evaluate motor creativity, rhythmic perception capacity, self-perception and enjoyment. Two lessons were randomly analyzed to identify the teaching style and motor content (moderate and vigorous activity). The main results revealed direct effects on the intervention group's motor creativity (p = 0.001) and its rhythmic perception capacity (p = 0.02). Furthermore, enjoyment mediated the effects of the intervention on motor creativity (p = 0.01). Finally, the results have shown that self-perception does not mediate the effect of rhythmic intervention group on motor creativity and rhythmic perceptive capacity (p > 0.05). A rhythmic methodology proposed by specific multi-teaching styles can involve children and young people in an enjoyable activity with more moderate to vigorous physical activity.

Effects of Musical Classes on Motor Creativity According to Age, Sex, and Weight Status in Young Students: A Music-Oriented versus Conventional Education Plan.

Motor creativity can be influenced by the specificity of the school-class environments (music-based education plans) and individual characteristics. This study aimed to investigate the effects of music oriented and conventional education plans on rhythmic perceptive capacity, motor creativity, and skill- and health-related fitness components in young students according to age, sex, and weight status. One hundred sixty-three young Italian students from elementary (second and fourth grade) and middle school (sixth and eighth grade) were enrolled in the study according to their education plan (music oriented or conventional). All participants were tested for rhythmic perceptive capacity (Stambak's test), motor creativity (Divergent Movement Ability test), skill-related (Körperkoordinationstest Für Kinder), and health-related (Multistage Fitness test) components. Individuals were also considered according to age (elementary and middle school), sex, and weight status. Significant age × education plan and sex × education plan interactions (p < 0.01) were found in motor creativity (locomotor and stability skills) and motor competence (balance and jumping-like activities). No significant weight status × education plan interaction was found. The predominant role of music in the music-oriented education plan appeared to foster the ability to enhance motor creativity in elementary and middle school students compared to the conventional plan. Moreover, music-oriented experience also seems relevant for expressing and exhibiting motor competence (i.e., balance) in relation to sex.

Can Enjoyment and Physical Self-Perception Mediate the Relationship between BMI and Levels of Physical Activity? Preliminary Results from the Regional Observatory of Motor Development in Italy.

Physical education during adolescence, supported by evidenced-based methodologies, offers many different opportunities to practice structured physical activity and promote the development of motor skills, motor coordination, and conditioning. The present study aimed to assess differences in the levels of physical activity, enjoyment, and self-perception in a sample (n = 1029, M = 505, F = 524) of 11-12-year-old secondary schoolchildren according to gender and BMI and determine (a) the mediation effects of physical self-perception in the association between BMI and physical activity and (b) the role of enjoyment in mediating the relation between physical self-perception and physical activity. As part of the Regional Observatory of Motor Development Project (Apulia, Southern Italy), the assessment involved three questionnaires for physical activity levels (PAL), physical self-perception (PSP_C), and enjoyment (PACES). The results showed significant differences in PSP between normal-weight, overweight, and obese children (especially in girls), while there were no significant differences in enjoyment. Physical self-perception partially mediates the relationship between BMI and PAL (R2 = 7.94% for males, 95% C.I.: -0.013, -0.004; R2 = 14.70% for females, 95% C.I.: -0.25, -0.009), and the enjoyment partially mediates the relationship between physical self-perception and PAL (R2 = 6.83% for males, 95% C.I. = 0.003, 0.012; R2 = 13.45% for females, 95% C.I. = 0.002, 0.014). However, only a small percentage of variance was explained, precluding the extension and generalization of the results obtained.

Body image, perceived and actual physical abilities in normal-weight and overweight boys involved in individual and team sports.

The aim of the study was to examine the relationships among body image, perception of physical abilities, and motor performance in boys involved in organized individual (i.e. tennis, fencing, judo) and team (i.e. soccer, handball, volleyball) sports. Altogether, 162 children (12.6 ± 1.0 years) were categorized as normal-weight (n = 85) or overweight (n = 77). Body image was measured using Collins' Child Figure Drawings, while individuals' perceptions of strength, speed, and agility were assessed using the Perceived Physical Ability Scale. Fitness tests of the standing long jump, 20 m sprint, and 10 × 5 m shuttle-run were also administered. Overweight boys showed greater body dissatisfaction and lower actual physical abilities than normal-weight peers. Participants involved in team sports reported lower body dissatisfaction and better performances in the shuttle-run compared with those involved in individual sports. For boys participating in team sports, body dissatisfaction was a significant mediator of the effect of body mass index on perceived physical ability. Results may influence intervention efforts, suggesting that targeting personal, psychological, and physical factors may prove efficient across physical activity locations and weight groups.

Assessing Rolling Abilities in Primary School Children: Physical Education Specialists vs. Generalists.

Teaching physical education requires competencies to conduct the classes and to assess the motor skills of practitioners. Specialists (physical education professionals) and generalists (primary school teachers) differently experienced motor tasks during their academic education. This study aimed to compare the teachers' ability in assessing the children's forward and backward rolls from the analysis of the reliability of an evaluation grid of rolling abilities (Information Scale for Agility on the Soil, InfoSAS), which was investigated in a first study with teachers. A second study in young children explored the responsiveness of the InfoSAS to discriminate by skill level or by training effects. When administered by specialists, the InfoSAS resulted in being reliable (forward: p = 0.087 and p = 0.908; backward: p = 0.926 and p = 0.910; intra- and inter-rater reliability, respectively) and responsive in detecting differences due to expertise (gymnasts vs. primary school children; forward: p = 0.003, backward: p = 0.016) or improvements after specific training in rolling (pre- vs. post-children's training; forward: p = 0.005, backward: p = 0.001). The results support the conclusion that specialists exhibit higher competence than generalists, which allows proper application of the InfoSAS, possibly because of the practice of skills and reflective teaching styles in physical activity they experienced, along with their academic education in sport sciences.

A Narrative Review of Motor Competence in Children and Adolescents: What We Know and What We Need to Find Out.

Lack of physical activity is a global public health problem causing not only morbidity and premature mortality, but it is also a major economic burden worldwide. One of the cornerstones of a physically active lifestyle is Motor Competence (MC). MC is a complex biocultural attribute and therefore, its study requires a multi-sectoral, multi-, inter- and transdisciplinary approach. MC is a growing area of research, especially in children and adolescents due to its positive association with a plethora of health and developmental outcomes. Many questions, however, remain to be answered in this field of research, with regard to: (i) Health and Developmental-related Associations of MC; (ii) Assessment of MC; (iii) Prevalence and Trends of MC; (iv) Correlates and Determinants of MC; (v) MC Interventions, and (vi) Translating MC Research into Practice and Policy. This paper presents a narrative review of the literature, summarizing current knowledge, identifying key research gaps and presenting questions for future investigation on MC in children and adolescents. This is a collaborative effort from the International Motor Competence Network (IMCNetwork) a network of academics and researchers aiming to promote international collaborative research and knowledge translation in the expansive field of MC. The knowledge and deliverables generated by addressing and answering the aforementioned research questions on MC presented in this review have the potential to shape the ways in which researchers and practitioners promote MC and physical activity in children and adolescents across the world.

Body image, perceived physical ability, and motor performance in nonoverweight and overweight Italian children.

The purpose was to examine body image, perceived physical ability, and motor performance in nonoverweight (n=105, 53 boys and 52 girls) and overweight (n=105, 52 boys and 53 girls) children, ranging in age from 8 to 10 years and attending elementary schools in southeastern Italy. Body image was measured on Collins' Child Figure Drawings, while self-efficacy was assessed by the Perceived Physical Ability Scale for Children. Age-appropriate field-based tests of standing long jump, 1-kg medicine-ball throw, basketball throw, and 10-m and 20-m sprint from a standing position were also administered to gauge motor performance. Univariate analyses of variance [2 (group) x 2 (sex) x 3 (8, 9, 10 yr.)] showed that overweight children reported larger body-dissatisfaction scores, lower self-efficacy scores, and poorer performance on weight-bearing tasks than nonoverweight peers. In addition, boys had higher mean scores on physical self-efficacy and better performance on all motor tests. The correlation between Body Mass Index and body dissatisfaction was positive for boys and girls.

Teacher-initiated Motivational Climate in Physical Education Questionnaire in an Italian sample.

The purpose of the study was to translate and adapt in the Italian language a questionnaire that could effectively assess perceived motivational climate in physical education. An Italian version of the Teacher-initiated Motivational Climate in Physical Education Questionnaire proposed by Papaioannou (1998) was administered to 1,681 young students, 840 girls and 841 boys, ages 11 to 14 years. Data were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis to assess the goodness of fit of the expected two-factor solution constituted by a Mastery Climate scale (six items) and a Performance Climate scale (six items). A good fit was indicated between the observed data and theoretical model and supported the two-dimensional structure of the test. In the total sample, the Mastery factor accounted for 33.6% of the variance and the Performance factor accounted for 15.4%. Cronbach alpha of the Mastery and Performance scales were .79 and .70, respectively.

Changes in actual and perceived physical abilities in clinically obese children: a 9-month multi-component intervention study.

OBJECTIVES: (1) To examine relationships among changes in physical activity, physical fitness and some psychosocial determinants of activity behavior in a clinical sample of obese children involved in a multi-component program; (2) to investigate the causal relationship over time between physical activity and one of its strongest correlates (i.e. perceived physical ability). METHODS: Self-reported physical activity and health-related fitness tests were administered before and after a 9-month intervention in 24 boys and 20 girls aged 8 to 11 years. Individuals' perceptions of strength, speed and agility were assessed using the Perceived Physical Ability Scale, while body image was measured using Collins' Child Figure Drawings. RESULTS: Findings showed that body mass index, physical activity, performances on throwing and weight-bearing tasks, perceived physical ability and body image significantly improved after treatment among obese children. Gender differences were found in the correlational analyses, showing a link between actual and perceived physical abilities in boys, but not in girls. For the specific measurement interval of this study, perception of physical ability was an antecedent and not a potential consequence of physical activity. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate that a multi-component activity program not based merely on a dose-effect approach enhances adherence of the participants and has the potential to increase the lifelong exercise skills of obese children. Rather than focusing entirely on diet and weight loss, findings support the inclusion of interventions directed toward improving perceived physical ability that is predictive of subsequent physical activity.

Gross motor development and physical activity in kindergarten age children.

Physical activity in kindergarten is a fundamental part of the child's educational process. Body experience and physical activity contribute to the development of self-awareness and the learning of different modes of expression, as well as encouraging the acquisition of physically active lifestyles. Recent scientific evidence has confirmed the role of physical activity in disease prevention and quality of life improvement, and stressed the importance of integrated educational programmes promoting physical activity and healthy eating habits. A key priority of scientific research is to identify the opportunities and methods of motor learning and to increase the daily physical activity levels of children by reducing sedentary time and promoting active play and transport (i.e. walking, cycling). Family, school and community involvement are all needed to assure adherence to the official guidelines on how much physical activity children need to boost their health and stave off obesity.

Gross motor skill performance in a sample of overweight and non-overweight preschool children.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to examine the gross motor skill performance of overweight and non-overweight preschool children from South of Italy, and to investigate possible differences by gender. METHODS: Participants were 38 boys and 42 girls (4.5 ± 0.5 yr) categorized as overweight (n = 38) and non-overweight (n = 42), according to the IOTF body mass index (BMI) cut-off points. The Test of Gross Motor Development was used to assess seven locomotor skills (run, gallop, hop, leap, horizontal jump, skip and slide) and five object-control skills (two-hand strike, stationary bounce, catch, kick and overhand throw). The raw, standard and percentile scores and the Gross Motor Development Quotient (GMDQ) were calculated for each participant. ANOVA 2 (gender) x 2 (group) was conducted on the subtest standard scores and the GMDQ. RESULTS: No differences in performance were found between boys and girls on the subscale standard scores and the GMDQ. Significant main effects (p < 0.001) were reported for group on the GMDQ, and the standard scores for locomotor and object-control skills, with overweight children reporting lower movement competence than their counterparts. Pearson's correlations revealed relationships (p < 0.001) between BMI and locomotor (r = -0.54) and object-control (r = 20.48) skills, and between BMI and GMDQ (r = 20.54). CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicate that childhood obesity might have adverse effects on gross motor development. Overweight participants showed poorer performance on locomotor and object-control tasks than their non-overweight peers. Interventions to promote physical activity in overweight children should be directed towards achieving a healthy weight and motor skill improvement.