Food safety risk perceptions and mitigation techniques in the dumpster diving community in Sweden.

An online questionnaire was used to investigate behaviors and habits relating to food retrieval by Swedish dumpster divers. Respondents were also asked to share information on their background, reasons for engaging in dumpster diving, and perceptions of potential bacterial hazards associated with the consumption of discarded foods. The questionnaire was mainly distributed to Swedish social media groups focusing on dumpster diving, and a total of 92 responses were received. The most common reason given for engaging in dumpster diving was to reduce food waste and associated negative environmental impacts (60%, n = 55). Many of the respondents (65%) had completed university education, and around three-quarters (73%) had some form of employment or were enrolled in studies. Half the respondents (52%, n = 48) perceived a risk of falling ill after consuming food obtained through dumpster diving, but very few (2%) reported they had been made ill by food they had picked up from dumpsters. Around one-fifth (22%) of the respondents did not know of any bacteria that could cause foodborne infections or food poisoning. Salmonella was mentioned by 35% of the respondents, while Listeria was mentioned by 18%. The respondents reported employing various techniques to reduce the risk of encountering harmful microbiological agents, for example, rinsing their food retrievals or discarding food that appeared spoiled. These are novel findings on dumpster divers' perceptions of perceived health risks and the strategies they use to mitigate such risks with food obtained through dumpster diving.

Season and Species: Two Possible Hurdles for Reducing the Food Safety Risk of Escherichia coli O157 Contamination of Leafy Vegetables.

The food safety risk of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) infection per serving of leafy vegetables was investigated using a quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) approach. The estimated level of E. coli O157 contamination was based on observed numbers of Enterobacteriaceae and E. coli on leafy vegetables grown and processed in southern Sweden from 2014 to 2016. Samples were collected before harvest, after washing, and at the end of shelf life. The observed counts were combined with data on the ratio of E. coli to E. coli O157 taken from earlier studies to estimate the probability of illness. The risks of STEC infection associated with species, either spinach ( Spinacia oleracea) or rocket ( Diplotaxis tenuifolia), growing season (spring or autumn), and washing (washed or not washed) were then evaluated. The results indicated that leafy vegetable species and growing season could be possible hurdles for reducing the food safety risk of STEC infection. At harvest, the probability of infection was 87% lower when consuming rocket compared with spinach and 90% lower when consuming leafy vegetables grown in spring compared with autumn. These relative risk reductions remained consistent even with other serving sizes and dose-response models. The lowest risk of STEC infection was associated with leafy vegetables early in the production chain, i.e., before harvest, while the risk increased during storage and processing. Consequently, the highest risk was observed when leafy vegetables were consumed at the end of shelf life. Washing had no effect on the food safety risk of STEC infection in this study. To improve the quality of QMRA, there is a need for additional data on the relationship between indicator organisms that can be easily enumerated (e.g., E. coli and Enterobacteriaceae) and E. coli strains that can cause STEC infection (e.g., E. coli O157) but are difficult to identify in food samples such as leafy vegetables.

The Hurdle Approach-A Holistic Concept for Controlling Food Safety Risks Associated With Pathogenic Bacterial Contamination of Leafy Green Vegetables. A Review.

Consumers appreciate leafy green vegetables such as baby leaves for their convenience and wholesomeness and for adding a variety of tastes and colors to their plate. In Western cuisine, leafy green vegetables are usually eaten fresh and raw, with no step in the long chain from seed to consumption where potentially harmful microorganisms could be completely eliminated, e.g., through heating. A concerning trend in recent years is disease outbreaks caused by various leafy vegetable crops and one of the most important foodborne pathogens in this context is Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC). Other pathogens such as Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia enterocolitica and Listeria monocytogenes should also be considered in disease risk analysis, as they have been implicated in outbreaks associated with leafy greens. These pathogens may enter the horticultural value network during primary production in field or greenhouse via irrigation, at harvest, during processing and distribution or in the home kitchen/restaurant. The hurdle approach involves combining several mitigating approaches, each of which is insufficient on its own, to control or even eliminate pathogens in food products. Since the food chain system for leafy green vegetables contains no absolute kill step for pathogens, use of hurdles at critical points could enable control of pathogens that pose a human health risk. Hurdles should be combined so as to decrease the risk due to pathogenic microbes and also to improve microbial stability, shelf-life, nutritional properties and sensory quality of leafy vegetables. The hurdle toolbox includes different options, such as physical, physiochemical and microbial hurdles. The goal for leafy green vegetables is multi-target preservation through intelligently applied hurdles. This review describes hurdles that could be used for leafy green vegetables and their biological basis, and identifies prospective hurdles that need attention in future research.

Food safety challenges and One Health within Europe.

This review discusses food safety aspects of importance from a One Health perspective, focusing on Europe. Using examples of food pathogen/food commodity combinations, spread of antimicrobial resistance in the food web and the risk of transmission of zoonotic pathogens in a circular system, it demonstrates how different perspectives are interconnected. The chosen examples all show the complexity of the food system and the necessity of using a One Health approach. Food safety resources should be allocated where they contribute most One Health benefits. Data on occurrence and disease burden and knowledge of source attribution are crucial in assessing costs and benefits of control measures. Future achievements in food safety, public health and welfare will largely be based on how well politicians, researchers, industry, national agencies and other stakeholders manage to collaborate using the One Health approach. It can be concluded that closer cooperation between different disciplines is necessary to avoid silo thinking when addressing important food safety challenges. The importance of this is often mentioned, but more proof of concept is needed by the research community.

Is your lunch salad safe to eat? Occurrence of bacterial pathogens and potential for pathogen growth in pre-packed ready-to-eat mixed-ingredient salads.

As part of a trend toward healthy convenience foods, ready-to-eat (RTE) mixed-ingredient salads have become popular products among consumers. A mixed-ingredient salad contains combinations of raw (e.g. leafy vegetables and tomatoes) and processed (e.g. chicken, salmon, ham, pasta and couscous) ingredients. Contamination of leafy vegetables can occur during any step in the production chain and, since there is no step that kills pathogens, a completely safe final product can never be guaranteed. Meat ingredients, for example poultry meat and ham, are generally heat-treated before preparation, but may be contaminated after this treatment, e.g. when diced or sliced. When several ingredients are mixed together, cross-contamination may occur. Preparation of mixed-ingredient salads requires human handling, which presents an additional risk of bacterial contamination. With high-protein ingredients, e.g. cooked meat, the mixed-ingredient salad represents an excellent substrate for bacterial growth. This article reviews current knowledge regarding human bacterial pathogen prevalence in mixed-ingredient salads and the potential for pathogen growth in this product during storage.

Emerging microbiota during cold storage and temperature abuse of ready-to-eat salad​.

Introduction: Ready-to-eat (RTE) leafy vegetables have a natural leaf microbiota that changes during different processing and handling steps from farm to fork. The objectives of this study were (i) to compare the microbiota of RTE baby spinach and mixed-ingredient salad before and after seven days of storage at 8°C or 15°C; (ii) to explore associations between bacterial communities and the foodborne pathogens Listeria monocytogenes, pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica, and pathogen model organism Escherichia coli O157:H7 gfp+ when experimentally inoculated into the salads before storage; and (iii) to investigate if bacterial pathogens may be detected in the 16S rRNA amplicon dataset. Material and methods: The microbiota was studied by means of Illumina 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. Subsets of samples were inoculated with low numbers (50-100 CFU g-1) of E. coli O157:H7 gfp+, pathogenic Y. enterocolitica or L. monocytogenes before storage. Results and discussion: The composition of bacterial communities changed during storage of RTE baby spinach and mixed-ingredient salad, with Pseudomonadales as the most abundant order across all samples. Although pathogens were present at high viable counts in some samples, they were only detected in the community-wide dataset in samples where they represented approximately 10% of total viable counts. Positive correlations were identified between viable counts of inoculated strains and the abundance of Lactobacillales, Enterobacteriales, and Bacillales, pointing to positive interactions or similar environmental driver variables that may make it feasible to use such bacterial lineages as indicators of microbial health hazards in leafy vegetables. The data from this study contribute to a better understanding of the bacteria present in RTE salads and may help when developing new types of biocontrol agents.​.

Fate of Listeria monocytogenes , Pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica , and Escherichia coli O157:H7 gfp+ in Ready-to-Eat Salad during Cold Storage: What Is the Risk to Consumers?

In this study, we investigated the fate of Listeria monocytogenes , pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica , and Escherichia coli O157:H7 gfp+ inoculated in low numbers into ready-to-eat baby spinach and mixed-ingredient salad (baby spinach with chicken meat). Samples were stored at recommended maximum refrigerator temperature (8°C in Sweden) or at an abuse temperature (15°C) for up to 7 days. Mixed-ingredient salad supported considerable growth when stored at 15°C during shelf life (3 days), with populations of L. monocytogenes , pathogenic Y. enterocolitica , and E. coli O157:H7 gfp+ increasing from less than 2.0 log CFU/g on day 0 to 7.0, 4.0, and 5.6 log CFU/g, respectively. However, when mixed-ingredient salad was stored at 8°C during shelf life, only L. monocytogenes increased significantly, reaching 3.0 log CFU/g within 3 days. In plain baby spinach, only pathogenic Y. enterocolitica populations increased significantly during storage for 7 days, and this was exclusively at an abuse temperature (15°C). Thus, mixing ready-to-eat leafy vegetables with chicken meat strongly influenced levels of inoculated strains during storage. To explore the food safety implications of these findings, bacterial numbers were translated into risks of infection by modeling. The risk of listeriosis (measured as probability of infection) was 16 times higher when consuming a mixed-ingredient salad stored at 8°C at the end of shelf life, or 200,000 times higher when stored at 15°C, compared with when consuming it on the day of inoculation. This indicates that efforts should focus on preventing temperature abuse during storage to mitigate the risk of listeriosis. The storage conditions recommended for mixed-ingredient salads in Sweden (maximum 8°C for 3 days) did not prevent growth of L. monocytogenes in baby spinach mixed with chicken meat. Manufacturers preparing these salads should be aware of this, and recommended storage temperature should be revised downwards to reduce the risk of foodborne disease.

Foodborne Bacterial Pathogens in Retail Prepacked Ready-to-Eat Mixed Ingredient Salads.

Prepacked ready-to-eat mixed ingredient salads (RTE salads) are readily available whole meals that include a variety of ingredients such as raw vegetables, cooked meat, and pasta. As part of a trend toward healthy convenience foods, RTE salads have become an increasingly popular product among consumers. However, data on the incidence of foodborne pathogens in RTE salads are scarce. In this study, the microbiological safety of 141 RTE salads containing chicken, ham, or smoked salmon was investigated. Salad samples were collected at retail and analyzed using standard methods for Listeria monocytogenes, Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC), pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica, Salmonella, and Campylobacter spp.L. monocytogenes was isolated from two (1.4%) of the RTE salad samples. Seven (5.0%) of the samples were positive for the ail gene (present in all human pathogenic Y. enterocolitica isolates) and three (2.1%) of the samples were positive for the Shiga toxin genes stx1 and/or stx2. However, no strains of pathogenic Y.enterocolitica or STEC were isolated. Thus, pathogens were found or suspected in almost 1 of 10 RTE salads investigated, and pathogenic bacteria probably are present in various RTE salads from retail premises in Sweden. Because RTE salads are intended to be consumed without heat treatment, control of the ingredients and production hygiene is essential to maintain consumer safety. The recommended maximum storage temperature for RTE salads varies among countries but can be up to 8°C (e.g., in Sweden). Even during a short shelf life (3 to 5 days), storage at 8°C can enable growth of psychrotrophs such as L. monocytogenes and Y. enterocolitica. The maximum storage temperature should therefore be reduced.

Yersinia enterocolitica in sheep--a high frequency of biotype 1A.

BACKGROUND: Pigs are regarded as the main reservoir for human pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica, which is dominated by bioserotype 4/O:3. Other animals, including sheep, have occasionally been reported as carriers of pathogenic strains of Y. enterocolitica. To our knowledge, this is the first study performed in the Nordic countries in which the presence of Y. enterocolitica in sheep is investigated. METHODS: Tonsils and faecal samples collected from sheep slaughtered on the island Gotland (Sweden) from September 2010 through January 2011 were analysed for presence of Y. enterocolitica. In an attempt to maximize recovery, several cultural strategies were applied. Various non-selective media were used and different temperatures and durations of the enrichment were applied before subculturing on Cefsulodin Irgasan Novobiocin (CIN) agar. Presumptive Y. enterocolitica colonies were subjected to urease, API 20E and agglutination test. Yersinia enterocolitica isolates were biotyped, serotyped, and tested for pathogenicity using a TaqMan PCR directed towards the ail-gene that is associated with human pathogenic strains of Y. enterocolitica. RESULTS: The samples collected from 99 sheep yielded 567 presumptive Y. enterocolitica colonies. Eighty urease positive isolates, from 35 sheep, were identified as Y. enterocolitica by API 20E. Thirty-four of 35 further subtyped Y. enterocolitica isolates, all from faecal samples, belonged to biotype 1A serotype O:5, O:6. O:13,7 and O:10. One strain was Yersinia mollaretii serotype O:62. No human pathogenic strains of Y. enterocolitica were found in the investigated sheep. Other species identified were Y. kristensenii (n = 4), Y. frederiksenii/intermedia (n = 3), Providencia rettgeri (n = 2), Serratia marcescens (n = 1) and Raoultella ornithinolytica (n = 1). CONCLUSIONS: This study does not support the hypothesis that sheep play an important role in transmission of the known human pathogenic Y. enterocolitica in the studied geographical region. However, because there are studies indicating that some strains of Y. enterocolitica biotype 1A may cause disease in humans, the relative importance of sheep as carriers of human pathogenic strains of Y. enterocolitica remains unclear. Tonsils do not appear to be favourable sites for Y. enterocolitica biotype 1A in sheep.