Presence, Co-Occurrence, and Daily Intake Estimates of Aflatoxins and Fumonisins in Maize Consumed in Food-Insecure Regions of Western Honduras.

Foodborne mycotoxins are a significant food safety risk in developing countries. Our objective was to determine the occurrence of and exposure levels to aflatoxins (AFs) and fumonisins (FBs) in maize intended for human and animal consumption in food-insecure regions of western Honduras. Total AFs and FBs were quantified with a monoclonal antibody-based affinity spectrofluorimetric method. FBs were detected in 614/631 samples of maize destined for human consumption at 0.3 to 41 mg/kg (mean, 2.7 mg/kg). Of the 614 positive samples, 147 had FB levels exceeding the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advisory threshold of 4.0 mg/kg. AFs were detected in 109/631 samples of maize for human consumption with concentrations between 1.0 and 490 µg/kg (mean, 10 µg/kg). AF levels in 34 samples exceeded the FDA regulatory limit (i.e., 20 µg/kg). The average probable daily intake of AFs in western Honduras ranged from 0 to 260 ng/kg body weight/day, and for FBs, the average probable daily intake ranged from 17 to 53 µg/kg body weight/day. AFs and FBs co-occurred in 106/631 samples with 60 samples containing both toxins at levels greater than the FDA regulatory levels. Samples of maize intended for animal feed had significantly higher AF (mean, 22 µg/kg) and FB (mean, 7.6 mg/kg) contamination levels than those observed in samples destined for human consumption. Thus, the maize supply chain in western Honduras is contaminated with mycotoxins at levels that pose health risks to both humans and livestock. More effective mycotoxin surveillance and implementation of effective mitigation strategies are needed to reduce mycotoxin contamination and exposure.

Quantitative modeling of the survival of Listeria monocytogenes in soy sauce-based acidified food products.

Primary and secondary models were developed for quantitatively characterizing the survival of Listeria monocytogenes in soy-sauce based acidified Asian style products that do not undergo a thermal treatment. The objective of this study was to quantify the effect of food matrix properties on L. monocytogenes' survival in soy sauce-based products. This quantification enables a product-specific estimation of 5-log reduction time to ensure a safe processing and management operation, to ultimately facilitate a science-based, safety-oriented product development process. A central composite design with four independent variables (pH, soy sauce, added NaCl and soluble solids) with five levels was used to plan the challenge studies on different formulations. To model microbial survival over time, different non-linear primary models were fit to the data obtained from challenge studies. The best-fit model was selected based on a series of statistical goodness-of-fit measures. Kinetic parameters estimated from the best-fit primary models were fit to response surface equations using second order polynomial regression. The best-fit primary model representative of the product formulations was a modified Weibull model. The natural logarithm of the scale parameter (δ, in h) was used as the response variable for the secondary model. This resulted in acceptable fitting compared to the observed values with R2 values of 0.95 and RMSE of 0.7 h. External validity of model predictions was conducted by comparing them to 5-log reduction times observed in independent challenge tests using different product formulations. Results indicated an acceptable validation with R2 = 0.81 and RMSE = 35 h. The present study provides quantitative tools specific for cold-fill-hold soy sauce-based products to enhance microbial safety management plans and product development.

Stability of fumonisin B1 and its bioaccessibility in extruded corn-based products.

Fumonisins are a group of mycotoxins commonly associated with corn-based products and require innovative alternatives to control exposure to its toxicity. The objective of this research was to determine the effect of amylose and resistant starch on fumonisin B1 (FB1) levels in extruded corn-based products as well as the toxin bioaccessibility upon digestion. Cornmeal contaminated with FB1 (1.5 µg/g) was extruded alone or combined with high-amylose corn starch (20%, w/w). FB1 was quantified both in the unextruded and extruded products by HPLC (high-performance liquid chromatography) fluorescence detector with pre-column derivatization. Samples were then subjected to an in vitro digestion model to evaluate the stability of the interaction between FB1 and the corn matrix extruded. The addition of high-amylose corn starch further reduced the detection of FB1 (74.9%), when compared with the effect of the extrusion alone (66.0%), confirming the binding of FB1 with the macromolecules or resistant starch. The bound fumonisin was stable upon simulated gastric digestion, and the duodenal bioaccessibility of free FB1 was lower than 35% when high-amylose corn starch ingredient was used in the product. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that high-amylose corn starch and resistant starch content influenced the reduction of FB1 and its duodenal bioaccessibility. This study for the first time shows that addition of high-amylose corn starch during extrusion is an innovative strategy to reduce FB1 release under digestive conditions, therefore useful in mitigating the exposure to this mycotoxin.

Condensation Removal Practices and Their Potential for Contributing to Environmental Pathogen Contamination in Food Processing Facilities.

ABSTRACT: Food manufacturers often use squeegees as a tool to remove condensation from overhead surfaces. This practice is done to reduce the likelihood of environmental pathogen contamination by eliminating condensed-water droplets that could fall from overhead surfaces during production. However, this practice may actually spread environmental pathogens across these surfaces, defeating its purpose and further increasing the risk for contamination in the processing area. To understand the risk associated with this common practice, test pipes inoculated with Listeria innocua ATCC 33090 were exposed to steam to produce condensation, which was then removed by squeegees. The pipe surfaces, droplets, and squeegees were subsequently analyzed for Listeria to determine the distance the organism spread across the pipe and how many organisms were transferred to the droplets and the squeegees. Results showed that Listeria traveled as far as 16 in. across the surface of the pipe, and bacterial transfer to the droplets decreased as the squeegee traveled further from the contaminated area. Sanitizers alone were able to remove about 1 to 2 log CFU of Listeria per in2 from the squeegee blades when materials were contaminated with Listeria (>6 log CFU/in2). Among the cleaning protocols evaluated, an extensive cleaning regimen was able to remove 3 to 4 log CFU/in2, which would be recommended to reduce the risk associated with environmental pathogen transfer. This study provides evidence that supports recommendations for minimizing the cross-contamination risk associated with condensation management practices.

Incidence of aflatoxins and fumonisins in grain, masa and corn tortillas in four municipalities in the department of Lempira, Honduras.

In Honduras, corn is the most important staple food for the majority of the population. This high-demand crop is susceptible to biological contamination with mycotoxins, which could represent a latent hazard for consumers. To assess the incidence of aflatoxins and fumonisins in grain, masa and tortilla, and the dietary exposure to these substances among consumers, a study was conducted in four municipalities in the department of Lempira. Total aflatoxin and fumonisin content were quantified by fluorometry in 144 samples from 48 farmers. Sixty five percent of the samples were contaminated with aflatoxins with levels of 1.28-32.05, 1.15 to 12.61, and 1.01-5.98 µg/kg in grain, masa and tortilla, respectively. Fumonisins were detected in 100% of the samples at levels between 0.82 and 28.04, 0.66 and 14.36, and 0.63 and 12.04 mg/kg in grain, masa and tortilla, respectively. The reduction in aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination after processing grains into tortillas was of 83% and 52%, respectively. The difference in aflatoxin and fumonisin concentration in the three products was significant (p < 0.05). With a per capita tortilla consumption of 490 g/day, dietary exposure was estimated between 0.003 and 0.073 µg/kg bw/day for aflatoxins and 6.16 and 151.98 µg/kg bw/day for fumonisins. Therefore, the risk of exposure to mycotoxins in the evaluated communities was considered high. Mixed effect models showed that postharvest grain management and the nixtamalization process affect the incidence of mycotoxins in corn-based products.

Reduction in pathogenic load of wheat by tempering with saline organic acid solutions at different seasonal temperatures.

As a raw agricultural commodity, wheat is exposed to microbial contamination; therefore, enteric pathogens may be among its microbiota creating a food safety risk in milled products. This research evaluates (1) the effectiveness of organic acids dissolved in saline solutions to reduce the counts of pathogenic microorganisms in soft and hard wheat, and also investigates the effect of seasonal temperature on (2) survivability of pathogens in wheat kernels and on (3) pathogen inactivation during tempering with saline organic acid solutions. Wheat samples were inoculated with cocktails of either 5 serovars of Salmonella enterica, 5 E. coli O157:H7 or 6 non-O157 Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) strains to achieve a concentration of ~7 log CFU/g. Inoculated samples were allowed to stand for 7-days at temperatures (2.0, 10.8, 24.2, 32 °C) corresponding to those experienced during winter, spring/fall, and summer (average and maximum) in the main wheat growing regions in the state of Nebraska, USA. Besides water, solutions containing acid (acetic or lactic 2.5% or 5.0% v/v) and NaCl (~26% w/v) were used for tempering the wheat to 15.0% (soft) and 15.5% (hard) moisture at the different seasonal temperatures. The survival of pathogenic microorganisms throughout the resting period, and before and after tempering was analyzed by plating samples on injury-recovery media. The survival rate of pathogenic microorganisms on wheat kernels was higher at temperatures experienced during the winter (2.0 °C) and spring/fall (10.8 °C) months. Regardless of tempering temperature, the initial pathogen load was reduced significantly by all solutions when compared to the control tempered with water (P ≤ .05). The combination of lactic acid (5.0%) and NaCl was the most effective treatment against Salmonella enterica, E. coli O157:H7 and non-O157 STEC, with average reduction values of 1.8, 1.8 and 1.6 log CFU/g for soft wheat and 2.6, 2.4 and 2.4 log CFU/g for hard wheat, respectively. Implementation of organic acids and NaCl in tempering water may have the potential to reduce the risk of pathogen contamination in milled products.

Radio-Frequency Processing for Inactivation of Salmonella enterica and Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 in Black Peppercorn.

Several Salmonella outbreaks linked to black pepper call for effective inactivation processes, because current decontamination methods result in quality deterioration. Radio-frequency (RF) heating provides a rapid heating rate and volumetric heating, resulting in a shorter come-up time. This allows for choosing a high-temperature and short-time combination to achieve the desired inactivation with minimal quality deterioration. The objectives of this study were to evaluate RF heating for inactivation of Salmonella enterica and Enterococcus faecium in black peppercorn and evaluate quality changes of RF-treated black peppercorn. Black peppercorns were inoculated with a five-strain cocktail of Salmonella or E. faecium to attain initial population levels of 6.8 and 7.3 log CFU/g, respectively, and were then adjusted to a moisture content of 12.7% (wet basis) and a water activity of 0.60 at room temperature. A stability test was performed to quantify the microbial reduction during inoculation and equilibration before RF heating inactivation. During RF heating, the cold spot was determined to be at the center on the top surface of the treated sample. In addition to inoculating the entire sample, an inoculated packed sample was placed at the cold spot of the tray. An RF heating time of 2.5 min provided a 5.31- and 5.26-log CFU/g reduction in the entire sample contained in the tray for Salmonella and E. faecium, respectively. Color parameters (L*, a*, b*), piperine content, total phenolics, scavenging activity, and most of the volatile compounds of 2.5-min RF-treated samples were not significantly different from those of the control samples. These data suggest that RF heating is a promising thermal inactivation treatment for Salmonella without significant quality deterioration, and E. faecium seems to be a suitable surrogate for Salmonella to validate the efficacy of RF heating of black peppercorn.

Response Surface Methodology for Salmonella Inactivation during Extrusion Processing of Oat Flour.

An increase in the number of foodborne outbreaks and recalls due to Salmonella in low-moisture foods has resulted in the need for the development and validation of process controls to ensure their microbiological safety. Furthermore, the Food Safety Modernization Act Preventive Controls for Human Food final rule requires food processors to validate their process controls to ensure food safety. The objective of this study was to develop a response surface model to predict Salmonella inactivation in oat flour, as affected by moisture, fat content, screw speed, and temperature. Oat flour was adjusted to different moisture (14 to 26% wet basis) and fat (5 to 15% [w/w]) contents and was then inoculated with a five-strain cocktail of Salmonella. Inoculated material was extruded through a single-screw extruder running at different screw speeds (75 to 225 rpm) and temperatures (65 to 85°C), without a die. Once steady-state conditions were attained, extruded samples were collected, cooled, and stored under refrigeration, and Salmonella survivors were enumerated. A split-plot central composite second-order response surface design was used, with the central point replicated six times. Temperature showed a significant ( P < 0.0005) positive effect on microbial reduction. Moisture content showed significant linear ( P = 0.0014) and quadratic ( P = 0.0005) effects, whereas higher fat content showed a significant ( P < 0.0001) protective effect on Salmonella destruction. The screw speed did not play a major role in inactivating Salmonella, but it had a significant ( P = 0.0004) interactive effect with temperature. Results indicated that a >5.5-log reduction was achieved in oat flour extruded at a temperature above 85°C at all moisture and fat contents evaluated at a screw speed of 150 rpm. The developed response surface model can be used to identify the extrusion process conditions to achieve a desired reduction of Salmonella based on the moisture and fat contents of the product.

Safety and Quality Assessment of Smallholder Farmers' Maize in the Western Highlands of Guatemala.

Maize ( Zea mays) is a staple in many developing countries but is known to be prone to pest (insects, birds, and rodents) and fungal infestation. In Guatemala, mycotoxin contamination of cultivated products may occur owing to such factors as environmental conditions and the use of traditional agriculture operations. To assess the current maize conditions in Guatemala, a small-scale study was performed. Mold and insect counts and mycotoxin (aflatoxin and fumonisin) concentrations were determined on 25 farms in two townships (Chiantla and Todos Santos) of the Huehuetenango Department. Total fungal counts were 3.6 to 6.83 log CFU/g with no significant differences ( P > 0.05) across farms at different altitudes. Farms where maize was not produced but was purchased were at higher risk of fumonisin contamination, whereas local producers were mostly affected by aflatoxins. Aflatoxin was present in maize from 100% of farms at 1.0 to 85.3 ppb, and fumonisin was detected on 52% of farms at 0.4 to 31.0 ppm. Average mycotoxin consumption amounts were above the recommended maximum intake for aflatoxin in both produced and purchased maize and above the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake for fumonisin in purchased maize. Estimated daily intake was 0.01 to 0.85 µg/kg of body weight per day for aflatoxin and 2.9 to 310.0 µg/kg of body weight per day for fumonisin. An entomological analysis revealed overall 32% prevalence of Ephestia kuehniella (flour moth), 16% prevalence of Sitophilus zeamais (maize weevil), and 8% prevalence of Tribolium sp. (flour beetle) on the analyzed farms. This study highlighted poor agricultural practices used in the highlands of Guatemala. Current practices should be revised for the production of maize that is safe for consumption by the population in this region.

Evaluation of Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 as a Surrogate for Salmonella During Extrusion of Low-Moisture Food.

Salmonella in low-moisture foods is an emerging challenge due to numerous food product recalls and foodborne illness outbreaks. Identification of suitable surrogate is critical for process validation at industry level due to implementation of new Food Safety Modernization Act of 2011. The objective of this study was to evaluate Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 as a surrogate for Salmonella during the extrusion of low-moisture food. Oat flour, a low-moisture food, was adjusted to different moisture (14% to 26% wet basis) and fat (5% to 15% w/w) contents and was inoculated with E. faecium NRRL B-2354. Inoculated material was then extruded in a lab-scale single-screw extruder running at different screw speeds (75 to 225 rpm) and different temperatures (75, 85, and 95 °C). A split-plot central composite 2nd order response surface design was used, with the central point replicated six times. The data from the selective media (m-Enterococcus agar) was used to build the response surface model for inactivation of E. faecium NRRL B-2354. Results indicated that E. faecium NRRL B-2354 always had higher heat resistance compared to Salmonella at all conditions evaluated in this study. However, the patterns of contour plots showing the effect of various product and process parameters on inactivation of E. faecium NRRL B-2354 was different from that of Salmonella. Although E. faecium NRRL B-2354 may be an acceptable surrogate for extrusion of low-moisture products due to higher resistance than Salmonella, another surrogate with similar inactivation behavior may be preferred and needs to be identified. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Food Safety Modernization Act requires the food industry to validate processing interventions. This study validated extrusion processing and demonstrated that E. faecium NRRL B-2354 is an acceptable surrogate for extrusion of low-moisture products. The developed response surface model allows the industry to identify process conditions to achieve a desired lethality for their products based on composition.

A risk assessment of dietary Ochratoxin a in the United States.

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin (fungal toxin) found in multiple foodstuffs. Because OTA has been shown to cause kidney disease in multiple animal models, several governmental bodies around the world have set maximum allowable levels of OTA in different foods and beverages. In this study, we conducted the first exposure and risk assessment study of OTA for the United States' population. A variety of commodities from grocery stores across the US were sampled for OTA over a 2-year period. OTA exposure was calculated from the OTA concentrations in foodstuffs and consumption data for different age ranges. We calculated the margin of safety (MOS) for individual age groups across all commodities of interest. Most food and beverage samples were found to have non-detectable OTA; however, some samples of dried fruits, breakfast cereals, infant cereals, and cocoa had detectable OTA. The lifetime MOS in the US population within the upper 95% of consumers of all possible commodities was >1, indicating negligible risk. In the US, OTA exposure is highest in infants and young children who consume large amounts of oat-based cereals. Even without OTA standards in the US, exposures would not be associated with significant risk of adverse effects.

Isolation and genetic identification of spore-forming bacteria associated with concentrated-milk processing in Nebraska.

Spore-forming bacteria are heat-resistant microorganisms capable of surviving and germinating in milk after pasteurization. They have been reported to affect the quality of dairy products by the production of enzymes (lipolytic and proteolytic) under low-temperature conditions in fluid milk, and have become a limiting factor for milk powder in reaching some selective markets. The objective of this research was to isolate and identify the population of spore-forming bacteria (psychrotrophic and thermophilic strains) associated with concentrated milk processing in Nebraska. During 2 seasons, in-process milk samples from a commercial plant (raw, pasteurized, and concentrated) were collected and heat-treated (80°C/12 min) to recover only spore-formers. Samples were spread-plated using standard methods agar and incubated at 32°C to enumerate mesophilic spore counts. Heat-treated samples were also stored at 7°C and 55°C to recover spore-formers that had the ability to grow under those temperature conditions. Isolates obtained from incubation or storage conditions were identified using molecular techniques (16S or rpoB sequencing). Based on the identification of the isolates and their relatedness, strains found in raw, pasteurized, and concentrated milk were determined to be similar. Paenibacillus spp. were associated with both raw and concentrated milk. Due to their known ability to cause spoilage under refrigeration, this shows the potential risk associated with the transferring of these problematic organisms into other dairy products. Other Bacillus species found in concentrated milk included Bacillus clausii, Bacillus subtilis, Lysinibacillus sp., Bacillus safensis, Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus sonorensis, and Brevibacillus sp., with the last 3 organisms being capable of growing at thermophilic temperatures. These strains can also be translocated to other dairy products, such as milk powder, representing a quality problem. The results of this research highlight the importance of understanding spore-formers associated with the processing of condensed milk, which then may allow for specific interventions to be applied to control these microorganisms in this processing chain. To our knowledge, this is the first study evaluating spore-formers associated with concentrated milk in the United States.

Microbial Load of Hard Red Winter Wheat Produced at Three Growing Environments across Nebraska, USA.

Post-flowering weather variables in farm fields may influence the microbial loads of wheat grain. In this study, the effects of weather variables following wheat flowering on the microbiological quality of wheat were evaluated over two consecutive growing seasons (2011 to 2012 and 2012 to 2013) in the state of Nebraska, USA. Three hard red winter wheat lines, including two commercial cultivars (Overland and McGill) and one experimental line (NW07505), were planted in three regions with contrasting key weather variables (Southeast, South Central, and Panhandle district) to ensure that developing seeds were exposed to different weather conditions. The natural microbial flora and deoxynivalenol concentrations of 54 freshly harvested wheat samples (three samples per wheat line, with a total of 9 samples per district) were analyzed to evaluate the impacts of the weather conditions prevailing from flowering to harvesting in each growing location (district) and season on the microbiological quality and safety of wheat grain. In 2012, the values for aerobic plate counts, Enterobacteriaceae, yeasts, molds, and internal mold infection levels were significantly lower in grain samples collected from the Panhandle district than in grain harvested from the South Central and Southeastern districts. No significant differences in the yeast counts were found in grain collected from all districts in 2013, but the levels of internal mold infection and mold counts were significantly higher in grain from the Southeastern district than in grain from the Panhandle district. Deoxynivalenol was detected in all districts; however, the concentrations were below the advisory level of 1 mg/kg for processed wheat. Microbial growth during grain development seems to be dependent on the existence of a threshold level of weather variables during the season. In general, the microbial loads in wheat grain tended to be lower in those areas with lower relative humidity levels (below 55%) and with temperatures lower than 13.7°C and higher than 31.5°C.

Physicochemical, Functional and Antioxidant Properties of Tropical Fruits Co-products.

The aim of this study was to determine the physicochemical, functional and antioxidant properties of mango (MAC), pineapple (PAC) and passion fruit (PFC) co-products in order to evaluate them as ingredients for food application. Proximate composition showed low fat content (0.95-5.64 g/100 g), and high levels of dietary fiber. In pineapple and passion fruit co-products, dietary fiber represented more than 50 % of the sample. Low pH, water activity, along with high acidity indicated that these co-products would not be easily susceptible to deterioration as food ingredients. Pineapple and passion fruit co-products had significant (p < 0.05) water holding capacity (4.96 and 4.31 g water/g sample, respectively), however oil holding capacity was low (1.59-1.85 g oil/g sample) for the three matrices studied. Regarding the phenolic content, values ranged from 3.78 to 4.67 mg gallic acid equivalent/g, with MAC showing the highest content. Through high performance liquid chromatography analysis, six compounds were identified and quantified (gallic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, epicatechin, and mangiferin) in the fruit co-products. As observed for the phenolic content, the highest antioxidant activity (p < 0.05) was found in MAC when measured by both DPPH and ABTS methods. The results indicated that the fruit co-products under evaluation could be used as functional ingredient to provide dietary fiber and natural antioxidants to food products.

Transmission of Escherichia coli O157:H7 to internal tissues and its survival on flowering heads of wheat.

Escherichia coli O157:H7 is a human pathogen that can cause bloody diarrhea, hemorrhagic colitis, and hemolytic uremic syndrome. E. coli O157:H7 illnesses are mainly associated with undercooked beef; however, in recent years, outbreaks have been linked to fresh produce, such as spinach, lettuce, and sprouts. In 2009, flour was implicated as the contamination source in an outbreak involving consumption of raw cookie dough that resulted in 77 illnesses. The objectives of this research were to determine (i) whether E. coli O157:H7 could be translocated into the internal tissues of wheat (Triticum aestivum) seedlings from contaminated seed, soil, or irrigation water and (ii) whether the bacterium could survive on flowering wheat heads. The levels of contamination of kanamycin-resistant E. coli O157:H7 strains in seed, soil, and irrigation water were 6.88 log CFU/g, 6.60 log CFU/g, and 6.76 log CFU/ml, respectively. One hundred plants per treatment were sown in pot trays with 50 g of autoclaved soil or purposely contaminated soil, watered every day with 5 ml of water, and harvested 9 days postinoculation. In a fourth experiment, flowering wheat heads were spray inoculated with water containing 4.19 log CFU/ml E. coli O157:H7 and analyzed for survival after 15 days, near the harvest period. To detect low levels of internalization, enrichment procedures were performed and Biotecon real-time PCR detection assays were used to determine the presence of E. coli O157:H7 in the wheat, using a Roche Applied Science LightCycler 2.0 instrument. The results showed that internalization was possible using contaminated seed, soil, and irrigation water in wheat seedlings, with internalization rates of 2, 5, and 10%, respectively. Even though the rates were low, to our knowledge this is the first study to demonstrate the ability of this strain to reach the phylloplane in wheat. In the head contamination experiment, all samples tested positive, showing the ability of E. coli O157:H7 to survive on the wheat head.

Characterisation and potential application of pineapple pomace in an extruded product for fibre enhancement.

This study characterised pineapple pomace (PP) and evaluated its application in extrusion to enhance fibre content of the final product. The pomace had low fat (0.61%) and high dietary fibre (45.22%), showing its potential for fibre enrichment of nutritionally poor products, as some extruded snacks. Results also showed low microbiological counts, water activity, and pH indicating good microbiological quality and low risk of physicochemical deterioration. During extrusion, pomace (0%, 10.5% and 21%), moisture (14%, 15% and 16%) and temperature (140 and 160°C) were evaluated. The PP addition decreased expansion and luminosity; while increasing redness of the extrudates compared to the control (0% pomace/14% moisture/140°C). When hardness, yellowness, water absorption, and bulk density were compared to the control, there was no effect (p>0.05) of 10.5% PP addition on the extrudates, indicating that, at this level, PP could be added without affecting the properties of the final extruded product.

Use of Enterococcus faecium as a surrogate for Salmonella enterica during extrusion of a balanced carbohydrate-protein meal.

Multiple outbreaks of salmonellosis have been associated with the consumption of low-moisture products, including extruded products. Therefore, there is a need for a nonpathogenic, surrogate microorganism that can be used to validate extrusion processes for Salmonella. The objective of this research was to determine if Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 is an adequate surrogate organism for Salmonella during extrusion. Extrusions at different temperatures were done in material contaminated with both organisms. Results indicated that the minimum temperature needed to achieve a 5-log reduction of E. faecium was 73.7°C. Above 80.3°C, the enumeration of E. faecium showed counts below the detectable levels (<10 CFU g(- 1)). Salmonella was reduced by 5 log at 60.6°C, and above 68.0°C the levels of this organism in the product were below the detection limit of the method. The data show that E. faecium is inactivated at higher temperatures than Salmonella, indicating that its use as a surrogate would provide an appropriate margin of error in extrusion processes designed to eliminate this pathogen. Attempting to minimize risk, the industry could validate different formulations, in combination with thermal treatments, using E. faecium as a safer alternative for those validation studies.

Validation of extrusion as a killing step for Enterococcus faecium in a balanced carbohydrate-protein meal by using a response surface design.

Outbreaks of salmonellosis and recalls of low-moisture foods including extruded products highlight the need for the food and feed industries to validate their extrusion processes to ensure the destruction of pathogenic microorganisms. Response surface methodology was employed to study the effect of moisture and temperature on inactivation by extrusion of Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 in a carbohydrate-protein mix. A balanced carbohydrate-protein mix was formulated to different combinations of moisture contents, ranging from 24.9 to 31.1%, and each was inoculated with a pure culture of E. faecium to a final level of 5 log CFU/g. Each mix of various moistures was then extruded in a pilot scale extruder at different temperatures (ranging from 67.5 to 85°C). After the extruder was allowed to equilibrate for 10 min, samples were collected in sterile bags, cooled in dry ice, and stored at 4°C prior to analysis. E. faecium was enumerated with tryptic soy agar and membrane Enterococcus media, followed by incubation at 35°C for 48 h. Each extrusion was repeated twice, with the central point of the design being repeated four times. From each extrusion, three subsamples were collected for microbial counts and moisture determination. Based on the results, the response surface model was y = 185.04 - 3.11X(1) - 4.23X(2) + 0.02X(1)(2) - 0.004X(1)X(2) + 0.08X(2)(2), with a good fit (R(2) = 0.92), which demonstrated the effects of moisture and temperature on the inactivation of E. faecium during extrusion. According to the response surface analysis, the greatest reduction of E. faecium for the inoculation levels studied here (about 5 log) in a carbohydrate-protein meal would occur at the temperature of 81.1°C and moisture content of 28.1%. Other temperature and moisture combinations needed to achieve specific log reductions were plotted in a three-dimensional response surface graph.

Extrusion cooking with glucose supplementation of fumonisin-contaminated corn grits protects against nephrotoxicity and disrupted sphingolipid metabolism in rats.

SCOPE: Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is a mycotoxin found in maize and maize-based foods. It causes animal diseases and is a suspected risk factor for cancer and birth defects in humans. Extrusion cooking reduces FB1 concentrations in maize however toxicity caused by unknown degradation or FB1-matrix reaction products might persist. METHODS AND RESULTS: To test the efficacy of extrusion to reduce FB1 toxicity, Fusarium verticillioides fermented corn (= maize) grits (Batch-1= 9.7 ppm FB1; Batch-2= 50 ppm FB1) were extruded without (Batch-1E; Batch-2E) or with 10% glucose supplementation (Batch-1EG; Batch-2EG). FB1 concentrations were reduced 64% (Batch-2E) to 94% (Batch-1EG) after cooking. When the uncooked and processed grits were fed (50% w/w in rodent chow) to rats for up to 8 weeks, FB1 intakes averaged 354, 103, and 25.1 çg/kg body weight/day for Batch-1, Batch-1E and Batch-1EG and 1804, 698, and 222 çg/kg body weight/day for the Batch-2, Batch-2E and Batch-2EG, respectively. Nephrotoxicity including apoptotic lesions and elevated sphingoid base concentrations decreased in a dose-dependent manner in groups fed Batch-1, Batch-1E, Batch-2, Batch-2E, or Batch-2EG and was absent in the Batch-1EG group. CONCLUSION: Extrusion cooking, especially with glucose supplementation, is potentially useful to reduce FB1 concentrations and toxicity of FB1-contaminated maize.

Reduction of fumonisin B1 in corn grits by twin-screw extrusion.

UNLABELLED: This study was designed to investigate the fate of fumonisins in flaking corn grits during twin-screw extrusion by measuring fumonisin B1 (FB1) and its analogs with a mass balance approach. Food grade corn grits and 2 batches of grits contaminated with FB1 at 10 and 50 µg/g by Fusarium verticillioides M-2552 were processed with or without glucose supplementation (10%, w/w) with a twin-screw extruder. Extrusion reduced FB1 in contaminated grits by 64% to 72% without glucose and 89% to 94% with added glucose. In addition, extrusion alone resulted in 26% to 73% reduction in the levels of fumonisin B2 and fumonisin B3, while levels of both mycotoxins were reduced by >89% in extruded corn grits containing 10% glucose. Mass balance analysis showed that 38% to 46% of the FB1 species detected in corn extruded with glucose was N-(deoxy-D-fructos-1-yl)-FB1, while 23% to 37% of FB1 species detected in extruded corn grits with and without added glucose was bound to the matrix. It was also found that the hydrolyzed form of FB1 was a minor species in extruded corn grits with or without added glucose, representing <15% of the total FB1 species present. Less than 46% of FB1 originally present in corn grits could be detected in the fumonisin analogues measured in this study. Research is needed to identify the reaction products resulting from extrusion processing of fumonisin-contaminated corn products. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Twin-screw extrusion is widely used in food industry for its versatility. This technology may reduce the level of fumonisins in corn particularly with added glucose.