Cost-consequence analysis of ambulatory clinic- and home-based multidrug-resistant tuberculosis management models in Eswatini.

BACKGROUND: We compared the cost-consequence of a home-based multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) model of care, based on task-shifting of directly observed therapy (DOT) and MDR-TB injection administration to lay health workers, to a routine clinic-based strategy within an established national TB programme in Eswatini. METHODS: Data on costs and effects of the two ambulatory models of MDR-TB care was collected using documentary data and interviews in the Lubombo and Shiselweni regions of Eswatini. Health system, patient and caregiver costs were assessed in 2014 in US$ using standard methods. Cost-consequence was calculated as the cost per patient successfully treated. RESULTS: In the clinic-based and home-based models of care, respectively, a total of 96 and 106 MDR-TB patients were enrolled in 2014, with treatment success rates of 67.8% and 82.1%. Health system costs per patient treated were slightly lower in the home-based strategy (US$19 598) compared to the clinic-based model (US$20 007). The largest costs in both models were for inpatient care, administration of DOT and injectable treatment, and drugs. Costs incurred by patients and caregivers were considerably higher in the clinic-based model of care due to the higher direct travel costs to the nearest clinic to receive DOT and injections daily. In total, MDR patients in the clinic-based strategy incurred average costs of US$670 compared to US$275 for MDR-TB patients in the home-based model. MDR-TB patients in the home-based programme, where DOT and injections was provided in their homes, only incurred out-of-pocket travel expenses for monthly outpatient treatment monitoring visits averaging US$100. The cost per successfully treated patient was US$31 106 and US$24 157 in the clinic-based and home-based models of care, respectively. The analysis showed that, in addition to the health benefits, direct and indirect costs for patients and their caregivers were lower in the home-based care model. CONCLUSION: The home-based strategy used less resources and generated substantial health and economic benefits, particularly for patients and their caregivers, and decision makers can consider this approach as an alternative to expand and optimise MDR-TB control in resource-limited settings. Further research to understand the appropriate mix of treatment support components that are most important for optimal clinical and public health outcomes in the ambulatory home-based model of MDR-TB care is necessary.

Cost effects of nurse led triage at an emergency department with the advice to consult the adjacent general practice cooperative for low-risk patients, a cluster randomised trial.

BACKGROUND: During the TRIAGE trial, emergency nurses diverted 13.3% of patients with low-risk complaints from a Belgian emergency department (ED) to the adjacent general practitioner cooperative (GPC). We examined the effects of this diversion on the total cost, insurance costs and patient costs, as charged on the invoice. Changes in the cost composition and the direct impact on revenues of both locations were examined as a secondary objective. METHODS: The differences in costs between intervention and control weekends were tested with two-sample t-tests and Kolmogorov-Smirnov (KS) tests. For the main outcomes an additional generalised linear model was created. Proportions of patients charged with certain costs were examined using Pearson's chi-square tests. Average revenues per weekend were compared using pooled t-tests. RESULTS: During intervention weekends, total costs increased by 3% (€3.3). The costs decreased by 8% (€2.2) for patients and increased by 6% (€5.5) for insurance, mainly driven by differences in physician fees. More patients were charged a consultation fee only (25% vs. 19%, p-value<0.01). The GPC's revenues increased by 13% (p-value=0.06); no change was found for the ED's revenues. CONCLUSION: The intervention reduced costs slightly for patients, while total costs and insurance costs slightly increased. When implementing triage systems with primary care involvement, the effects on the costs and revenues of the stakeholders should be monitored.

Differences in emergency nurse triage between a simulated setting and the real world, post hoc analysis of a cluster randomised trial.

OBJECTIVES: In the TRIAGE trial, a cluster randomised trial about diverting emergency department (ED) patients to a general practice cooperative (GPC) using a new extension to the Manchester Triage System, the difference in the proportion of patients assigned to the GPC was striking: 13.3% in the intervention group (patients were encouraged to comply to an ED or GPC assignment, real-world setting) and 24.7% in the control group (the assignment was not communicated, all remained at the ED, simulated setting). In this secondary analysis, we assess the differences in the use of the triage tool between intervention and control group and differences in costs and hospitalisations for patients assigned to the GPC. SETTING: ED of a general hospital and the adjacent GPC. PARTICIPANTS: 8038 patients (6294 intervention and 1744 control).Primary and secondary outcome measures proportion of patients with triage parameters (reason for encounter, discriminator and urgency category) leading to an assignment to the ED, proportion of patients for which the computer-generated GPC assignment was overruled, motivations for choosing certain parameters, costs (invoices) and hospitalisations. RESULTS: An additional 3.1% (p<0.01) of the patients in the intervention group were classified as urgent. Discriminators leading to the ED were registered for an additional 16.2% (p<0.01), mainly because of a perceived need for imaging. Nurses equally chose flow charts leading to the ED (p=0.41) and equally overruled the protocol (p=0.91). In the intervention group, the mean cost for patients assigned to the GPC was €23 (p<0.01) lower and less patients with an assignment to the GPC were hospitalised (1.0% vs 1.6%, p<0.01). CONCLUSION: Nurses used a triage tool more risk averse when it was used to divert patients to primary care as compared with a theoretical assignment to primary care. Outcomes from a simulated setting should not be extrapolated to real patients. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT03793972.

Knowledge, attitudes and practices of community treatment supporters administering multidrug-resistant tuberculosis injections: A cross-sectional study in rural Eswatini.

BACKGROUND: This study assessed knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) of lay community treatment supporters (CTSs) delegated with directly observed treatment (DOT) supervision and administration of intramuscular multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) injections in the Shiselweni region in Eswatini. METHODOLOGY: A cross-sectional survey among a purposive sample of 82 CTSs providing DOT and administering injections to MDR-TB patients was conducted in May 2017. Observations in the patients' homes were undertaken to verify CTSs' self-reported community-based MDR-TB management practices. RESULTS: Out of 82 respondents, 78 (95.1%) were female and half (n = 41; 50.0%) had primary education or lower. Over one-tenth (n = 12; 14.6%) had not attended a MDR-TB training workshop, but were administering injections. The overall KAP scores were satisfactory. Good self-reported community-based MDR-TB practices were largely verified through observation. However, substantial proportions of respondents incorrectly defined MDR-TB, were unaware of the treatment regimen, stigmatised patients, and underreported needlestick injuries. There was no statistically significant association between duration administering intramuscular injections, MDR-TB training, knowledge and attitudes, and good community-based MDR-TB management practices. CONCLUSIONS: The gaps in the current KAP of CTSs in this setting raise questions about the timing, adequacy, design and content of community-based MDR-TB management training. Nonetheless, with appropriate training, lay CTSs in this region can be an option to complement an overstretched professional health workforce in providing DOT and MDR-TB injections at community level.

Triaging and referring in adjacent general and emergency departments (the TRIAGE-trial): A process evaluation of medical staff experiences in a nurse-led triage system.

AIMS: This process evaluation aims at identifying the facilitators and inhibitors that influenced the successful uptake of a nurse-led triage system streaming low-risk patients from an emergency department (ED) to the general practitioner (GP). DESIGN & METHODS: Semi-structured interviews with ED nurses (n = 12), ED doctors (n = 6) from the ED of a Belgian general hospital and GPs (n = 5) affiliated with the adjacent GP cooperative (GPC). The process evaluation ran in parallel with the TRIAGE trial that started in March 2019 and ended 31st of December 2019. The first set of interviews was conducted in June 2019 and the second set in January 2020. Data were analysed based on grounded theory. RESULTS: Through a deductive framework, facilitators and inhibitors could be identified on three levels: the organisational, group and individual level. Main inhibitors are the degree of risk aversion of individual nurses, possible language barriers during delivery of the triage advice and the non-adapted ED infrastructure. Training on both the use of the triage protocol and effective delivery of the triage advice, in combination with periodical feedback from the GPC were the most important facilitators. CONCLUSION: Based on the process evaluation we can conclude that a consensus exists among stakeholders that the ED Nurses are considered ideally positioned to perform the triage of walk-in patients, although a certain degree of experience is necessary. Although the extended triage protocol and GPC referral increases the complexity and duration of triage and entails a higher workload for the triage nurses, ED nurses found it did lead to a lower (perceived) workload for the ED in general.

Non-compliance with a nurse's advice to visit the primary care provider: an exploratory secondary analysis of the TRIAGE-trial.

BACKGROUND: During the cluster randomised TRIAGE-trial, a nurse advised 13% of low-risk patients presenting at an emergency department in Belgium to visit the adjacent general practitioner cooperative. Patients had the right to refuse this advice. This exploratory study examines the characteristics of refusers by uncovering the determinants of non-compliance and its impact on costs, as charged on the patient's invoice. METHODS: Bivariate analyses with logistic regressions and T-tests were used to test the differences in patient characteristics, patient status, timing characteristics, and costs between refusers and non-refusers. A chi-square automatic interaction detection analysis was used to find the predictors of non-compliance. RESULTS: 23.50% of the patients refused the advice to visit the general practitioner cooperative. This proportion was mainly influenced by the nurse on duty (non-compliance rates per nurse ranging from 2.9% to 52.8%) and the patients' socio-economic status (receiving increased reimbursement versus not OR 1.37, 95%CI: 0.96 to 1.95). Additionally, non-compliance was associated (at the 0.10 significance level) with being male, not living nearby and certain reasons for encounter. Fewer patients refused when the nurse perceived crowding level as quiet relative to normal, and more patients refused during the evening. The mean cost was significantly higher for patients who refused, which was a result of more extensive examination and higher out-of-pocket expenses at the ED. CONCLUSIONS: The nurse providing the advice to visit the general practitioner cooperative has a central role in the likelihood of patients' refusal. Interventions to reduce non-compliance should aim at improving nurse-patient communication. Special attention may be required when managing patients with a lower socio-economic status. The overall mean cost was higher for refusers, illustrating the importance of compliance. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial was registered on registration number NCT03793972 on 04/01/2019.

Triaging and referring in adjacent general and emergency departments (the TRIAGE trial): A cluster randomised controlled trial.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether a new triage system safely diverts a proportion of emergency department (ED) patients to a general practitioner cooperative (GPC). METHODS: Unblinded randomised controlled trial with weekends serving as clusters (three intervention clusters for each control). The intervention was triage by a nurse using a new extension to the Manchester Triage System assigning low-risk patients to the GPC. During intervention weekends, patients were encouraged to follow this assignment; it was not communicated during control weekends (all patients remained at the ED). The primary outcome was the proportion of patients assigned to and handled by the GPC during intervention weekends. The trial was randomised for the secondary outcome: the proportion of patients assigned to the GPC. Additional outcomes were association of these outcomes with possible confounders (study tool parameters, nurse, and patient characteristics), proportion of patients referred back to the ED by the GPC, hospitalisations, and performance of the study tool to detect primary care patients (the opinion of the treating physician was the gold standard). RESULTS: In the intervention group, 838/6294 patients (13.3%, 95% CI 12.5 to 14.2) were assigned to the GPC, in the control group this was 431/1744 (24.7%, 95% CI 22.7 to 26.8). In total, 599/6294 patients (9.5%, 95% CI 8.8 to 10.3) experienced the primary outcome which was influenced by the reason for encounter, age, and the nurse. 24/599 patients (4.0%, 95% CI 2.7 to 5.9) were referred back to the ED, three were hospitalised. Positive and negative predictive values of the studied tool during intervention weekends were 0.96 (95%CI 0.94 to 0.97) and 0.60 (95% CI 0.58 to 0.62). Out of the patients assigned to the GPC, 2.4% (95% CI 1.7 to 3.4) were hospitalised. CONCLUSIONS: ED nurses using a new tool safely diverted 9.5% of the included patients to primary care. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03793972.

The out-of-pocket burden of chronic diseases: the cases of Belgian, Czech and German older adults.

BACKGROUND: Out-of-pocket payments have a diverse impact on the burden of those with a higher morbidity or the chronically ill. As the prevalence of chronic diseases increases with age, older adults are a vulnerable group. The paper aims to evaluate the impact of chronic diseases on the out-of-pocket payments burden of the 50+ populations in Belgium, the Czech Republic and Germany. METHODS: Data from the sixth wave of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe is used. A two-part model with a logit model in the first part and a generalised linear model in the second part is applied. RESULTS: The diseases increasing the burden in the observed countries are heart attacks, high blood pressure, cancer, emotional disorders, rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. Reflecting country differences Parkinson's disease and its drug burden is relevant in Belgium, the drugs burden related to heart attack and outpatient care burden to chronic kidney disease in the Czech Republic and the outpatient care burden of cancer and chronic lung disease in Germany. In addition, we confirm the regressive character of out-of-pocket payments. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that the burden is not equitably distributed among older adults with chronic diseases. Identification of chronic diseases with a high burden can serve as a supplementary protective feature.

Task-shifting directly observed treatment and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis injection administration to lay health workers: stakeholder perceptions in rural Eswatini.

BACKGROUND: Eswatini is facing a critical shortage of human resources for health (HRH) and limited access to multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) treatment in rural areas. This study assessed multiple stakeholders' perceptions of task-shifting directly observed treatment (DOT) supervision and administration of intramuscular MDR-TB injections to lay health workers (LHWs). METHODS: A mixed methods study comprising a cross-sectional survey using a semi-structured questionnaire with community treatment supporters (CTSs) and a focus group discussion with key stakeholders including representatives from the Eswatini Ministry of Health (MOH), donor organisations, professional regulatory institutions, nursing academia, civil society and healthcare providers was conducted in May 2017. Descriptive statistics, thematic content analysis and data triangulation aided in the interpretation of results. RESULTS: A large majority of CTSs (n = 78; 95.1%) were female and 33 (40.2%) were older than 50 years. Most (n = 7; 70.0%) key stakeholders had over 10 years of work experience in policy-making, advocacy in the fields of HRH or day-to-day practice in MDR-TB management. Task-shifting of MDR-TB injection administration was implemented without national policy guidance and regulation. Stakeholders viewed the strategy to be driven by the prevailing shortage of professional frontline HRH and limited access to MDR-TB treatment. Task-shifting was perceived to improve medication adherence, and reduce stigma and transport-related MDR-TB treatment access barriers. Frontline healthcare workers and implementing donor partners fully supported task-shifting. Policy-makers and other stakeholders accepted task-shifting conditionally due to fears of poor standards of care related to perceived incompetence of CTSs. Appropriate compensation, adequate training and supervision, and non-financial incentives were suggested to retain CTSs. A holistic task-shifting policy and collaboration between the MOH, academia and nursing council in regulating the practice were recommended. CONCLUSIONS: Stakeholders generally accepted the delegation of DOT supervision and administration of intramuscular MDR-TB injections to LHWs as a strategy to increase access to treatment, albeit with some apprehension. Findings from this study stress that task-shifting is not a panacea for HRH shortages, but a short-term solution that must form part of an overall simultaneous strategy to train, attract and retain adequate numbers of professional healthcare workers in Eswatini. To address some of the apprehension and ambivalence about expanding access to MDR-TB services through task-shifting, attention should be paid to important aspects such as competence-based training, certification and accreditation, adequate supportive on-the-job supervision, recognition, compensation, and expediting policy and regulatory support for LHWs.

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Pneumococcal and Influenza Vaccines Administered to Children Less Than 5 Years of Age in a Low-Income District of Bogota, Colombia.

BACKGROUND: The Colombian health authorities introduced the pneumococcal conjugated vaccine and the seasonal influenza vaccine into the national immunization schedule for children in 2009 and 2007, respectively. Despite this, the health authorities continue to be concerned about the high economic and disease burden among children from low-income households caused by these vaccine-preventable diseases. OBJECTIVES: 1) To evaluate the potential health outcomes of four vaccination strategies for subsidized children younger than 5 years in a low-income district in Colombia from a public, direct medical health care perspective. 2) To perform univariate, multivariate, and probabilistic sensitivity analysis to evaluate the robustness of these results. METHODS: We built a Markov deterministic cohort model to evaluate five consecutive cohorts across four alternative situations: 1) no vaccination; 2) vaccination with the 10-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV10 vaccine); 3) vaccination with the trivalent inactivated vaccine (TIV) annually; and 4) combined vaccination with PCV10 vaccine and TIV. RESULTS: The introduction of PCV10 vaccine and TIV and their combined use in particular would be highly cost-effective in comparison to no vaccination. For the combined vaccination with PCV10 vaccine and TIV, the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio would be $1,280 per disability-adjusted life-year (DALY) averted, the total incremental cost of the vaccination program would be $776,800, and it would avert four deaths and 332 DALYs for the five cohorts. CONCLUSIONS: The introduction of PCV10 vaccine and TIV would be highly cost-effective from a public, direct medical health care perspective. Despite these results, we have not observed decreases in severity or hospitalizations. Our findings highlight the need for further studies of the immunization campaign indicators and socioeconomic indicators for this low-income community.

Disease burden and medical cost-analysis of Acute Respiratory Infections in a low-income district of Bogotá.

Objective To estimate the burden of disease and related direct medical cost of Acute Respiratory Infections (ARI) for the health-care system in a low-income district of Bogota, generated by children under age five and senior population over age sixty. Methods A cross-sectional, retrospective, patient level study was conducted in San Cristobal district from 2008 to 2012 among the subsidized population. All inpatients and outpatients with ARI from three hospitals were reported. The total and average direct medical costs were estimated and are reported in International Dollars (Int$). Results It is estimated that, for children, ambulatory incidence rate for ARI varied between 54.4 % and 66.3 % and hospitalization rate between 9.2 % and 12.3 %. The mortality rate in the district oscillated between 18.1 and 27.7 deaths per 100 000. The main medical costs were attributed to hospitalizations, and the total medical hospitalization cost per year estimated ranged between Int$ 1 334 352 and Int$ 2 139 597. In the case of senior population, the ambulatory incidence rate fluctuated between 7.6 % and 10.0 %, and the hospitalization rates between 0.6 % and 2.1 %; the mortality rate ranged between 8.9 and 47.8 deaths per 100 000. Hospitalization cost per year was estimated to be between Int$ 88 957 and Int$ 373 382. Conclusion Direct medical costs due to ARI have an important disease and direct medical cost burden in this low-income district.

Hospitalization costs ofTAVI in one Belgian university hospital.

OBJECTIVE: Considering the sizeable cost of transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) and conflicting cost-effectiveness studies, it is useful to gain more insight into the cost structure of the TAVI hospitalization. This study provides such a cost analysis and starts to evaluate options to soften the hospitalization cost burden in order to make TAVI economically more feasible. METHODS: Costs forTAVI hospitalization in the University Hospital of Antwerp were analysed uni- and bivariately. Graphical and numerical displays of the data are supplemented with the non-parametric Wilcoxon rank sum statistic and Spearman rank rho correlation. RESULTS: Overall, 47 percent of the cost could be attributed to the implanted valve and 21 percent was accounted for by the room costs. Further, costs seemed highly insensitive to pre-existing patient characteristics. Only patients with pulmonary hypertension were characterized with systematically higher costs (Wilcoxon rank sum P-value of 0.049). Complications related to TAVI had a significant upward impact on the costs and there was also evidence for a learning effect on total costs. CONCLUSIONS: In general the analyses showed that only limited options remain for cost reduction of the TAVI hospitalization cost. The most promising option is the reduction of the valve price. Avoidance of complications is hard to achieve given the current state of the art although this would significantly reduce overall costs.

Predicting the place of out-of-hours care--a market simulation based on discrete choice analysis.

BACKGROUND: Increasing cost pressure and changing patients' needs in the healthcare sector have led to new delivery models for primary care. Researchers and practitioners need to establish innovative methods to obtain insights into patients' preferences and effectiveness of healthcare services. AIM: This study reveals the crucial decision criteria of patients in choosing out-of-hours services and provides a projection of a future market share of the newly established central out-of-hours service, called General Practitioner Cooperative. DESIGN: A computer-aided discrete choice experiment. METHOD: Respondents were 350 patients in a European city who decided for a service when confronted with a medical emergency in an out-of-hours case; two scenarios called 'adult' and 'child', describing the persons requiring medical assistance, were used to increase generalizability. RESULTS: The two most important attributes were 'explanation by the doctor' and 'waiting time' while the others - 'availability of technical equipment', 'ease of access', 'type of consultation' and 'payment method' - were of less importance. The market share projections predict that the new General Practitioner Cooperative will capture about one third of the market ('adult': 39.1%, 'child': 31.3%), ahead of the emergency department, the second most preferred service ('adult': 32.7%, 'child': 30.7%). CONCLUSIONS: This study quantifies the adoption of a new medical service. As a result, it extends current research approaches on eliciting and matching patient's needs and assists policy makers in establishing adequate service capacities.

Can we account for selection bias? A comparison between bare metal and drug-eluting stents.

OBJECTIVE: In this article we investigate the possibility to account for selection bias in observational data by using econometric techniques. METHODS: One-year costs of 15,237 patients who received a drug-eluting stent (DES) or a bare metal stent (BMS) in Belgium in 2004 were compared. The treatment choice between DES and BMS could be influenced by patient characteristics; therefore, cost estimates could be biased by overt and/or hidden selection bias. Overt bias was addressed by regression adjustment and propensity score matching. Hidden selection bias was dealt with by using an instrumental variable (IV) approach. RESULTS: Due to the higher purchase price DES patients incur higher (unadjusted) costs in the short-term; these costs are, however, compensated in the long-term due to less in-stent restenosis and hospitalizations. Analyses indicated that, for the diabetic population, the null hypothesis of similar average 1-year costs of patients receiving a BMS or DES cannot be rejected. For the non-diabetic patients a significant cost difference between BMS and DES patients was found. It cannot be ruled out that the treatment-effect model does not correct for all observable or unobservable characteristics and that the estimated treatment effect is biased, possibly due to weak instruments. CONCLUSION: It is interesting and necessary to explore the use of econometric tools in cost and cost effectiveness analysis to investigate the effect of a technology in everyday practice and to take into account patient and disease characteristics and uncertainty. Further research is however necessary to investigate how we can fully correct for selection bias when using observational data.

Supplemental health insurance and equality of access in Belgium.

The effects of supplemental health insurance on health-care consumption crucially depend on specific institutional features of the health-care system. We analyse the situation in Belgium, a country with a very broad coverage in compulsory social health insurance and where supplemental insurance mainly refers to extra-billing in hospitals. Within this institutional background, we find only weak evidence of adverse selection in the coverage of supplemental health insurance. We find much stronger effects of socio-economic background. We estimate a bivariate probit model and cannot reject the assumption of exogeneity of insurance availability for the explanation of health-care use. A count model for hospital care shows that supplemental insurance has no significant effect on the number of spells, but a negative effect on the number of nights per spell. We comment on the implications of our findings for equality of access to health care in Belgium.

Hospital supplements in Belgium: price variation and regulation.

OBJECTIVES: Although there is a comprehensive public health insurance system in Belgium, out-of-pocket expenditures can be very high, mainly for inpatients. While a large part of the official price is reimbursed, patients are confronted with increased extra billing (supplements). Therefore, the government imposed various restrictions on the amount of supplements to be charged, related to the type of room and the patient's insurance status. We investigate how prices are set and whether the restrictions have been effective. METHODS: We use an administrative dataset of the Belgian sickness funds for the year 2003 with billing data per hospitalisation and hospital characteristics. Boxplots describe the distribution of several categories of supplements. OLS is used to explore the relationship between hospital characteristics and extra billing. RESULTS: There is a large and intransparent variation in extra billing practices among different hospitals. Given the room type, supplements per day are smaller for patients qualifying for protection, confirming that the regulation is applied quite well. However, because of their longer length of stay this does not result in lower supplements per stay for these patients. CONCLUSIONS: Currently the price setting behavior of providers lacks transparency. Protective regulation could be refined by taking into account the longer length of stay of vulnerable groups.

Comparing the cost effectiveness of risperidone and olanzapine in the treatment of schizophrenia using the net-benefit regression approach.

To estimate the cost effectiveness of olanzapine and risperidone for the treatment of schizophrenia in Belgium. Data were retrieved from a prospective, observational, non-randomized, follow-up survey. Clinical investigators assigned 265 patients with schizophrenia to either olanzapine (n = 136) or risperidone (n = 129). Patients were followed up for 2 years. Total healthcare costs were determined from the public payer perspective and calculated by multiplying resource use with official tariffs; effectiveness of the drugs was measured with the EQ-5D. This study uses a net-benefit regression approach to accommodate for baseline differences between treatment groups and uncertainty. Total 2-year costs were very similar for patients receiving risperidone and olanzapine (euro20 915.33 and euro20 569.69, respectively; p = 0.925) [year 2002 values]. The health condition of the patients receiving risperidone was better than that of patients receiving olanzapine but not significantly so (1.46 and 1.41, respectively; p = 0.191). Simple ordinary least squares (OLS) regressions indicated that, for lambda = euro40 000, we could not reject the null hypothesis that the drugs provide similar net monetary benefits to the patient (risperidone vs olanzapine euro2046.95; p = 0.656). When we controlled for several patient characteristics, risperidone moved further away from olanzapine but the difference did not reach statistical significance (risperidone vs olanzapine euro3198.07; p = 0.595). Numerous sensitivity analyses confirmed the robustness of the results. Results of this study suggest that it is important to control for baseline patient characteristics when performing a cost-effectiveness analysis. No significant difference in net monetary benefit was found between risperidone and olanzapine.

Economic analysis of the use of drug-eluting stents from the perspective of Belgian health care.

OBJECTIVE: Recent evidence shows that drug-eluting stent devices (DES) substantially reduce the risk of in-stent restenosis compared with classic bare metal stent devices (BMS). In Belgium, however, the use of BMS is still standard procedure due to the higher prices of the newer DES. Although the use of DES is more expensive in the short term it might be beneficial in the long term due to the avoidance of revascularization costs. The primary objective of this study is to compare the net cost of DES and BMS from the perspective of Belgian health care. METHODS AND RESULTS: Cost differences between DES and BMS are determined by the difference in stent price and the difference in the rate of re-intervention. The cost of revascularization of patients with in-stent restenosis was estimated based on data gathered at the Antwerp University hospital (UZA). Data on effectiveness were obtained from a literature meta-analysis. Because of some important study limitations, a sensitivity analysis was included in this study. In general, the use of DES was cost saving as compared with BMS, with savings amounting to E 165 for Cypher stent devices and Euro 128 for Taxus stent devices in the base case scenario. For patients with a high risk of restenosis net savings persist in almost all sensitivity analyses. CONCLUSION: The use of DES in patients with a high in-stent restenosis risk is cost saving. Price evolutions in the stent device market predict that the use of DES, if not yet cost saving, will become cost saving in the near future for all types of patients. Recent evidence, however, casts some doubt on the long-term effectiveness of DES.

Healthcare use, social burden and costs of children with and without ADHD in Flanders, Belgium.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to provide quantitative information on the economic, social and emotional burden borne by families of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and on the public healthcare costs of a child with ADHD in Flanders, Belgium, and to compare costs of ADHD children with those of siblings without the disorder. METHODS: A pilot-tested questionnaire was sent to all members of the Flemish ADHD society in February 2003. Parents were asked to record utilisation of healthcare, social care and other non-medical resources for their ADHD child and his/her sibling. In addition, data were collected on ADHD severity (IOWA-Conners Rating Scale) and on the sociodemographic and economic characteristics of the parents. Parents' out-of-pocket and public annual costs were calculated using tariffs. These costs were corrected for several confounding variables using general linear model (GLM) estimates. RESULTS: ADHD affects school results and parents' productivity and places a psychological and emotional burden on the family. Childhood ADHD also results in a significantly higher use of healthcare: ADHD children have a significantly higher probability of visiting a general practitioner (60.3% vs 37.4%) and a specialist (50.9% vs 12.9%); they also visit the emergency department significantly more often (26% vs 12.1%), and they are hospitalised significantly more often (14% vs 8.4%). Consequently, Flemish children with ADHD incur significantly higher medical costs than their siblings without the disorder. Even after correction for several covariates, these cost differences are still striking. In fact, compared with their sibling, the annual cost for an ADHD child is more than six times higher for the parent (Euro 588.3 vs Euro 91.5), and public costs are twice as high (Euro 779 vs Euro 371.3) [year of costing 2002]. CONCLUSIONS: Childhood ADHD results in significantly higher use of healthcare and adversely affects academic achievements and parents' productivity.

Order bias in estimates of willingness to pay for drugs to treat attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

This study investigated the presence of order bias in contingent valuation studies. We compared the willingness to pay (WTP) for an improved drug for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder with that for the standard drug and examined whether the order in which the drugs are presented influences the results obtained. A pretested questionnaire was administered to 114 university students. WTP was elicited using the payment card method. A split sample was used to test order bias. The average WTP per month was euro 57.34 for the standard drug and euro 81.95 for the new drug. The results show that WTP for a new drug varies according to the order in which the drugs are presented. Respondents stated a higher WTP for the new drug if the standard therapy was presented first. This may be due to order bias, evidence of which has also been found in other studies and which is considered to be a limitation of the method. Finally, the use of marginal WTP is suggested as a solution.