Antibacterial activity of apramycin at acidic pH warrants wide therapeutic window in the treatment of complicated urinary tract infections and acute pyelonephritis.

BACKGROUND: The clinical-stage drug candidate EBL-1003 (apramycin) represents a distinct new subclass of aminoglycoside antibiotics for the treatment of drug-resistant infections. It has demonstrated best-in-class coverage of resistant isolates, and preclinical efficacy in lung infection models. However, preclinical evidence for its utility in other disease indications has yet to be provided. Here we studied the therapeutic potential of EBL-1003 in the treatment of complicated urinary tract infection and acute pyelonephritis (cUTI/AP). METHODS: A combination of data-base mining, antimicrobial susceptibility testing, time-kill experiments, and four murine infection models was used in a comprehensive assessment of the microbiological coverage and efficacy of EBL-1003 against Gram-negative uropathogens. The pharmacokinetics and renal toxicology of EBL-1003 in rats was studied to assess the therapeutic window of EBL-1003 in the treatment of cUTI/AP. FINDINGS: EBL-1003 demonstrated broad-spectrum activity and rapid multi-log CFU reduction against a phenotypic variety of bacterial uropathogens including aminoglycoside-resistant clinical isolates. The basicity of amines in the apramycin molecule suggested a higher increase in positive charge at urinary pH when compared to gentamicin or amikacin, resulting in sustained drug uptake and bactericidal activity, and consequently in potent efficacy in mouse infection models. Renal pharmacokinetics, biomarkers for toxicity, and kidney histopathology in adult rats all indicated a significantly lower nephrotoxicity of EBL-1003 than of gentamicin. INTERPRETATION: This study provides preclinical proof-of-concept for the efficacy of EBL-1003 in cUTI/AP. Similar efficacy but lower nephrotoxicity of EBL-1003 in comparison to gentamicin may thus translate into a higher safety margin and a wider therapeutic window in the treatment of cUTI/API. FUNDING: A full list of funding bodies that contributed to this study can be found in the Acknowledgements section.

Insights into Elution of Anion Exchange Cartridges: Opening the Path toward Aliphatic 18F-Radiolabeling of Base-Sensitive Tracers.

Aliphatic nucleophilic substitution (SN2) with [18F]fluoride is the most widely applied method to prepare 18F-labeled positron emission tomography (PET) tracers. Strong basic conditions commonly used during 18F-labeling procedures inherently limit or prohibit labeling of base-sensitive scaffolds. The high basicity stems from the tradition to trap [18F]fluoride on anion exchange cartridges and elute it afterward with basic anions. This sequence is used to facilitate the transfer of [18F]fluoride from an aqueous to an aprotic organic, polar reaction medium, which is beneficial for SN2 reactions. Furthermore, this sequence also removes cationic radioactive contaminations from cyclotron-irradiated [18O]water from which [18F]fluoride is produced. In this study, we developed an efficient elution procedure resulting in low basicity that permits SN2 18F-labeling of base-sensitive scaffolds. Extensive screening of trapping and elution conditions (>1000 experiments) and studying their influence on the radiochemical yield (RCY) allowed us to identify a suitable procedure for this. Using this procedure, four PET tracers and three synthons could be radiolabeled in substantially higher RCYs (up to 2.5-fold) compared to those of previously published procedures, even from lower precursor amounts. Encouraged by these results, we applied our low-basicity method to the radiolabeling of highly base-sensitive tetrazines, which cannot be labeled using state-of-art direct aliphatic 18F-labeling procedures. Labeling succeeded in RCYs of up to 20%. We believe that our findings facilitate PET tracer development by opening the path toward simple and direct SN2 18F fluorination of base-sensitive substrates.

Changes in Adolescents' Psychosocial Functioning and Well-Being as a Consequence of Long-Term COVID-19 Restrictions.

This work studied self-reports from adolescents on how the COVID-19 pandemic has changed their behaviors, relationships, mood, and victimization. Data collection was conducted between September 2020 and February 2021 in five countries (Sweden, the USA, Serbia, Morocco, and Vietnam). In total, 5114 high school students (aged 15 to 19 years, 61.8% females) responded to our electronic survey. A substantial proportion of students reported decreased time being outside (41.7%), meeting friends in real life (59.4%), and school performance (30.7%), while reporting increased time to do things they did not have time for before (49.3%) and using social media to stay connected (44.9%). One third of the adolescents increased exercise and felt that they have more control over their life. Only a small proportion of adolescents reported substance use, norm-breaking behaviors, or victimization. The overall COVID-19 impact on adolescent life was gender-specific: we found a stronger negative impact on female students. The results indicated that the majority of adolescents could adapt to the dramatic changes in their environment. However, healthcare institutions, municipalities, schools, and social services could benefit from the findings of this study in their work to meet the needs of those young people who signaled worsened psychosocial functioning, increased stress, and victimization.

Fully Automated GMP-Compliant Synthesis of [18F]FE-PE2I.

In the struggle to understand and accurately diagnose Parkinson's disease, radiopharmaceuticals and medical imaging techniques have played a major role. By being able to image and quantify the dopamine transporter density, noninvasive diagnostic imaging has become the gold standard. In the shift from the first generation of SPECT tracers, the fluorine-18-labeled tracer [18F]FE-PE2I has emerged as the agent of choice for many physicians. However, implementing suitable synthesis for the production of [18F]FE-PE2I has proved more challenging than expected. Through a thorough analysis of the relevant factors affecting the final radiochemical yield, we were able to implement high-yielding fully automated GMP-compliant synthesis of [18F]FE-PE2I on a Synthera®+ platform. By reaching RCYs up to 62%, it allowed us to isolate 25 GBq of the formulated product, and an optimized formulation resulted in the shelf life of 6 h, satisfying the increased demand for this radiopharmaceutical.

In Vivo Veritas: 18F-Radiolabeled Glycomimetics Allow Insights into the Pharmacological Fate of Galectin-3 Inhibitors.

Glycomimetic drugs have attracted increasing interest as unique targeting vectors or surrogates for endogenous biomolecules. However, it is generally difficult to determine the in vivo pharmacokinetic profile of these compounds. In this work, two galectin-3 inhibitors were radiolabeled with fluorine-18 and used as surrogate PET tracers of TD139 and GB1107. Both compounds are promising drugs for clinical applications. In vivo evaluation revealed that both surrogates strongly differed with respect to their biodistribution profile. The disaccharide (TD139 surrogate) was rapidly eliminated from blood while the monosaccharide (GB1107 surrogate) showed no sign of excretion. The data obtained allowed us to infer the different in vivo fate of TD139 and GB1107 and rationalize how different administration routes could boost efficacy. Whereas the fast excretion profile of the TD139 surrogate indicated that systemic application of disaccharides is unfavorable, the extended biological half-life of the GB1107 surrogate indicated that systemic administration is possible for monosaccharides.

Radiosynthesis and preclinical evaluation of [11 C]Cimbi-701 - Towards the imaging of cerebral 5-HT7 receptors.

The serotonin 7 (5-HT7 ) receptor is suggested to be involved in a broad variety of CNS disorders, but very few in vivo tools exist to study this important target. Molecular imaging with positron emission tomography (PET) would enable an in vivo characterization of the 5-HT7 receptor. However, no clinical PET radiotracer exists for this receptor, and thus we aimed to develop such a tracer. In this study, we present the preclinical evaluation of [11 C]Cimbi-701. Cimbi-701 was synthesized in a one-step procedure starting from SB-269970. Its selectivity profile was determined using an academic screening platform (NIMH Psychoactive Drug Screening Program). Successful radiolabeling of [11 C]Cimbi-701 and subsequent in vivo evaluation was conducted in rats, pigs and baboon. In vivo specificity was investigated by 5-HT7 and σ receptor blocking studies. P-gp efflux transporter dependency was investigated using elacridar. [11 C]Cimbi-701 could successfully be synthesized. Selectivity profiling revealed high affinity for the 5-HT7 (Ki = 18 nM), σ-1 (Ki = 9.2 nM) and σ-2 (Ki = 1.6 nM) receptors. In rats, [11 C]Cimbi-701 acted as a strong P-gp substrate. After P-gp inhibition, rat brain uptake could specifically be blocked by 5-HT7 and σ receptor ligands. In pig, high brain uptake and specific 5-HT7 and σ-receptor binding was found for [11 C]Cimbi-701 without P-gp inhibition. Finally, low brain uptake was found in baboons. Both the specific σ-receptor binding and the low brain uptake of [11 C]Cimbi-701 displayed in baboon discouraged further translation to humans. Instead, we suggest exploration of this structural class as results indicate that selective 5-HT7 receptor imaging might be possible when more selective non-P-gp substrates are identified.

Towards selective CNS PET imaging of the 5-HT7 receptor system: Past, present and future.

Since its discovery in 1993, the serotonin receptor subtype 7 (5-HT7) has attracted significant attention as a potential drug target; due to its elucidated roles in conditions such as insomnia, schizophrenia, and more. Therefore, it is unsurprising that there has been relatively early efforts undertaken to develop a positron emission tomography (PET) imaging agent for said receptor system. PET can be clinically used to probe receptor systems in vivo, permitting information such as a drug's occupancy against this system to be investigated. This review focuses on the efforts towards the development of a 5-HT7R selective PET CNS tracer over the last 20 years, critically reflecting on applied strategies and commonly employed chemical frameworks and suggests future considerations that are needed to successfully develop a PET tracer for this clinically relevant target. This article is part of the special issue entitled 'Serotonin Research: Crossing Scales and Boundaries'.

Synthesis and Pharmacological Evaluation of [11C]4-Methoxy-N-[2-(thiophen-2-yl)imidazo[1,2-a]pyridin-3-yl]benzamide as a Brain Penetrant PET Ligand Selective for the δ-Subunit-Containing γ-Aminobutyric Acid Type A Receptors.

The α4/6ßδ-containing GABAA receptors are involved in a number of brain diseases. Despite the potential of a δ-selective imaging agent, no PET radioligand is currently available for in vivo imaging. Here, we report the characterization of DS2OMe (1) as a candidate radiotracer, 11C-labeling, and subsequent evaluation of [11C]DS2OMe in a domestic pig as a PET radioligand for visualization of the δ-containing GABAA receptors.

Development and Evaluation of Two Potential 5-HT7 Receptor PET Tracers: [18F]ENL09 and [18F]ENL10.

The latest addition to the serotonin (5-HT) receptor family is the 5-HT7 receptor (5-HT7R). This receptor has gained interest as a drug target due to its involvement in various disorders such as depression or schizophrenia. There is currently no clinically validated positron emission tomography (PET) tracer for the 5-HT7R available. But, the (arylpiperazinyl-butyl)oxindole scaffold provides a promising lead structure for this purpose. Here, we synthesized 12 (arylpiperazinyl-butyl)oxindole derivatives and in vitro affinity screening identified two structures with suitable affinity and selectivity to be radiolabeled and tested as 5-HT7R selective PET tracers. Next, the radiolabeled products [18F]ENL09 and [18F]ENL10 were evaluated as PET tracers in rats. Both tracers were found to be P-gp substrates, but after P-gp inhibition the brain uptake showed a regional distribution in line with the known 5-HT7R distribution.  The [18F]ENL10 brain binding was displaceable with a 5-HT7R selective ligand, whereas [18F]ENL09 was not. We find that [18F]ENL10 is a promising 5-HT7R selective PET tracer candidate that should be investigated in higher species.

Improved radiosynthesis and preliminary in vivo evaluation of the 11C-labeled tetrazine [11C]AE-1 for pretargeted PET imaging.

Pretargeted nuclear imaging based on the ligation between tetrazines and nano-sized targeting agents functionalized with trans-cyclooctene (TCO) has recently been shown to improve both imaging contrast and dosimetry in nuclear imaging of nanomedicines. Herein, we describe the improved radiosynthesis of a 11C-labeled tetrazine ([11C]AE-1) and its preliminary evaluation in both mice and pigs. Pretargeted imaging in mice was carried out using both a new TCO-functionalized polyglutamic acid and a previously reported TCO-functionalized bisphosphonate system as targeting agents. Unfortunately, pretargeted imaging was not successful using these targeting agents in pair with [11C]AE-1. However, brain imaging in pig indicated that the tracer crossed the blood-brain-barrier. Hence, we suggest that this tetrazine scaffold could be used as a starting point for the development of pretargeted brain imaging, which has so far been a challenging task.

Classics in Neuroimaging: The Serotonergic 2A Receptor System-from Discovery to Modern Molecular Imaging.

Already in 1953, Woolley and Shaw speculated that serotonin could be involved in a range of central nervous system (CNS) disorders. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) displayed an important role in this respect. It was used not only to antagonize biological effects of serotonin and to study the system itself, but also to identify serotonergic subtype receptors. The 5-HT2A receptor was discovered in the 1970s and identified as the responsible receptor mediating psychedelic effects of LSD. The development of positron emission tomography (PET) allowed to study this receptor system in vivo. Parameters such as abundance of 5-HT2A neuroreceptors or receptor occupancy can be determined using PET. As such, the development of 5-HT2A receptor tracers started immediately after the introduction of PET in the mid-1970s. In this Viewpoint, we provide a historical overview from the discovery of serotonin to the identification of the 5-HT2A receptor subtype and the subsequent development of 5-HT2A receptor subtype specific PET tracers over the last four decades. We emphasize the interplay between pharmacology, medicinal chemistry, radiochemistry, and nuclear medicine that is important while developing a PET tracer. Moreover, we highlight selected examples applying 5-HT2A receptor PET tracers within neurological diseases and drug occupancy studies.

Modeling Strategies for Quantification of In Vivo 18F-AV-1451 Binding in Patients with Tau Pathology.

Aggregation of hyperphosphorylated tau is a major hallmark of many neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer disease (AD). In vivo imaging with PET may offer important insights into pathophysiologic mechanisms, diagnosis, and disease progression. We describe different strategies for quantification of 18F-AV-1451 (T807) tau binding, including models with blood sampling and noninvasive alternatives. Methods: Fifteen subjects (4 controls, 6 AD, 3 progressive supranuclear palsy, 2 cortico basal syndrome) underwent 180-min PET with 18F-AV-1451 and arterial blood sampling. Modeling with arterial input functions included 1-, 2-, and 3-tissue-compartment models and the Logan plot. Using the cerebellum as reference region, we applied the simplified reference tissue model 2 and Logan reference plot. Finally, simplified outcome measures were calculated as ratio, with reference to cerebellar concentrations (SUV ratio [SUVR]) and SUVs. Results: Tissue compartment models were not able to describe the kinetics of 18F-AV-1451, with poor fits in 33%-53% of cortical regions and 80% in subcortical areas. In contrast, the Logan plot showed excellent fits and parameter variance (total volume of distribution SE < 5%). Compared with the 180-min arterial-based Logan model, strong agreement was obtained for the Logan reference plot also for a reduced scan time of 100 min (R2 = 0.91) and SUVR 100-120 min (R2 = 0.94), with 80-100 min already representing a reasonable compromise between duration and accuracy (R2 = 0.93). Time-activity curves and kinetic parameters were equal for cortical regions and the cerebellum in control subjects but different in the putamen. Cerebellar total volumes of distribution were higher in controls than patients. For these methods, increased cortical binding was observed for AD patients and to some extent for cortico basal syndrome, but not progressive supranuclear palsy. Conclusion: The Logan plot provided the best estimate of tau binding using arterial input functions. Assuming that the cerebellum is a valid reference region, simplified methods seem to provide robust alternatives for quantification, such as the Logan reference plot with 100-min scan time. Furthermore, SUVRs between target and cerebellar activities obtained from an 80- to 100-min static scan offer promising potential for clinical routine application.

Quantitative PET Imaging of Tissue Factor Expression Using 18F-Labeled Active Site-Inhibited Factor VII.

UNLABELLED: Tissue factor (TF) is upregulated in many solid tumors, and its expression is linked to tumor angiogenesis, invasion, metastasis, and prognosis. A noninvasive assessment of tumor TF expression status is therefore of obvious clinical relevance. Factor VII is the natural ligand to TF. Here we report the development of a new PET tracer for specific imaging of TF using an (18)F-labeled derivative of factor VII. METHODS: Active site-inhibited factor VIIa (FVIIai) was obtained by inactivation with phenylalanine-phenylalanine-arginine-chloromethyl ketone. FVIIai was radiolabeled with N-succinimidyl 4-(18)F-fluorobenzoate and purified. The corresponding product, (18)F-FVIIai, was injected into nude mice with subcutaneous human pancreatic xenograft tumors (BxPC-3) and investigated using small-animal PET/CT imaging 1, 2, and 4 h after injection. Ex vivo biodistribution was performed after the last imaging session, and tumor tissue was preserved for molecular analysis. A blocking experiment was performed in a second set of mice. The expression pattern of TF in the tumors was visualized by immunohistochemistry and the amount of TF in tumor homogenates was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and correlated with the uptake of (18)F-FVIIai in the tumors measured in vivo by PET imaging. RESULTS: The PET images showed high uptake of (18)F-FVIIai in the tumor regions, with a mean uptake of 2.5 ± 0.3 percentage injected dose per gram (%ID/g) (mean ± SEM) 4 h after injection of 7.3-9.3 MBq of (18)F-FVIIai and with an average maximum uptake in the tumors of 7.1 ± 0.7 %ID/g at 4 h. In comparison, the muscle uptake was 0.2 ± 0.01 %ID/g at 4 h. At 4 h, the tumors had the highest uptake of any organ. Blocking with FVIIai significantly reduced the uptake of (18)F-FVIIai from 2.9 ± 0.1 to 1.4 ± 0.1 %ID/g (P < 0.001). The uptake of (18)F-FVIIai measured in vivo by PET imaging correlated (r = 0.72, P < 0.02) with TF protein level measured ex vivo. CONCLUSION: (18)F-FVIIai is a promising PET tracer for specific and noninvasive imaging of tumor TF expression. The tracer merits further development and clinical translation, with potential to become a companion diagnostics for emerging TF-targeted therapies.

Synthesis and characterization of (18)F-labeled active site inhibited factor VII (ASIS).

Activated factor VII blocked in the active site with Phe-Phe-Arg-chloromethyl ketone (active site inhibited factor VII (ASIS)) is a 50-kDa protein that binds with high affinity to its receptor, tissue factor (TF). TF is a transmembrane glycoprotein that plays an important role in, for example, thrombosis, metastasis, tumor growth, and tumor angiogenesis. The aim of this study was to develop an (18)F-labeled ASIS derivative to assess TF expression in tumors. Active site inhibited factor VII was labeled using N-succinimidyl-4-[(18)F]fluorobenzoate, and the [(18)F]ASIS was purified on a PD-10 desalting column. The radiochemical yield was 25 ± 6%, the radiochemical purity was >97%, and the pseudospecific radioactivity was 35 ± 9 GBq/µmol. The binding efficacy was evaluated in pull-down experiments, which monitored the binding of unlabeled ASIS and [(18)F]ASIS to TF and to a specific anti-factor VII antibody (F1A2-mAb). No significant difference in binding efficacy between [(18)F]ASIS and ASIS could be detected. Furthermore, [(18)F]ASIS was relatively stable in vitro and in vivo in mice. In conclusion, [(18)F]ASIS has for the first time been successfully synthesized as a possible positron emission tomography tracer to image TF expression levels. In vivo positron emission tomography studies to evaluate the full potential of [(18)F]ASIS are in progress.

(18)F-labelled metomidate analogues as adrenocortical imaging agents.

INTRODUCTION: Two- and one-step syntheses of (18)F-labelled analogues of metomidate, such as 2-[(18)F]fluoroethyl 1-[(1R)-1-phenylethyl]-1H-imidazole-5-carboxylate (1), 2-[(18)F]fluoroethyl 1-[(1R)-1-(4-chlorophenyl)ethyl]-1H-imidazole-5-carboxylate (2), 2-[(18)F]fluoroethyl 1-[(1R)-1-(4-bromophenyl)ethyl]-1H-imidazole-5-carboxylate (3), 3-[(18)F]fluoropropyl 1-[(1R)-1-(4-bromophenyl)ethyl]-1H-imidazole-5-carboxylate (4) and 3-[(18)F]fluoropropyl 1-[(1R)-1-phenylethyl]-1H-imidazole-5-carboxylate (5) are presented. METHODS: Analogues 1-5 were prepared by a two-step reaction sequence that started with the synthesis of either 2-[(18)F]fluoroethyl 4-methylbenzenesulfonate or 3-[(18)F]fluoropropyl 4-methylbenzenesulfonate. These were used as (18)F-alkylating agents in the second step, in which they reacted with the ammonium salt of a 1-[(1R)-1-phenylethyl]-1H-imidazole-5-carboxylic acid. One-step-labelling syntheses of 1, 2 and 5 were also explored. Analogues 1-4 were biologically validated by frozen-section autoradiography and organ distribution. Metabolite analysis was performed for 2 and 3. RESULTS: The radiochemical yield of the two-step synthesis was in the range of 10-29% and that of the one-step synthesis was 25-37%. Using microwave irradiation in the one-step synthesis of 1 and 2 increased the radiochemical yield to 46+/-3% and 79+/-30%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Both the frozen-section autoradiography and organ distribution results indicated that analogue 2 has a potential as an adrenocortical imaging agent, having the highest degree of specific adrenal binding and best ratio of adrenal to organ uptake among the compounds studied.

Necrotizing encephalitis of unknown cause in Fennoscandian Arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus).

A neurologic disease affected a colony of endangered Fennoscandian arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus) kept in captivity for breeding purposes. Several outbreaks of disease occurred between 1994 and 2004. The clinical signs included ataxia, indications of anosmia, blindness, and abnormal behavior. The disease was characterized by severe necrotizing encephalitis affecting mostly the cranial cerebrum, basal ganglia, and olfactory bulbs. Investigations to identify the etiology of the disease included testing for several infectious agents known to cause encephalitis in carnivores. Tests for Toxoplasma gondii, Encephalitozoon cuniculi, Neospora caninum, canine distemper virus, rabies, adenovirus type 1, Borna disease virus, and Listeria monocytogenes were negative. The colony was closed, and the cause of the disease remains undetermined.

Estimation of the post-mortem interval in beagle dogs.

Estimation of the time that has elapsed between death and the post-mortem examination of a body contributes to the investigation of death by defining the period during which death may have occurred. In a veterinary context, investigations involve a range of incidents including out-of-season shooting of game animals, poaching, death during transportation and cases of neglect or non-accidental injury of domestic animals. This study on dogs of the same breed, of similar weights and held under identical conditions, shows that a combination of rectal temperature, environmental temperature, gross pathology and histological changes can provide a scientifically based estimate of the post-mortem interval during the first 10 h following death, of up to one day, one to three days, three to seven days and one to three weeks.