Reduced Neural Satiety Responses in Women Affected by Obesity.

Overweight and obesity are major risk factors for a number of chronic diseases, including diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. Obesity rates are on the rise worldwide with women more frequently affected than men. Hedonic responses to food seem to play a key role in obesity, but the exact mechanisms and relationships are still poorly understood. In this study, we investigate the perceived pleasantness of food rewards in relation to satiety and calories consumed during an ad libitum meal in women. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and a milkshake consumption task, we studied how experienced food values are encoded in women with healthy weight, overweight or obesity. Participants rated the pleasantness and intensity of high and low caloric milkshakes in the fMRI scanner during both the fasted and fed states. We found differences in the neural responses and experienced pleasantness of high and low caloric milkshakes depending on satiety and Body Mass Index (BMI). Women with both high ad libitum consumption levels and high BMI reported greater experienced pleasantness for milkshakes. In contrast, among women with low ad libitum consumption levels, greater BMI was associated with less experienced pleasantness. At the neural level, satiety affected women with obesity to a lesser degree than women with healthy weight. Thus, having obesity was associated with altered relationships between food consumption and the hedonic responses to food rewards as well as reduced satiety effects in women.

Elevated amygdala response to faces following early deprivation.

A functional neuroimaging study examined the long-term neural correlates of early adverse rearing conditions in humans as they relate to socio-emotional development. Previously institutionalized (PI) children and a same-aged comparison group were scanned using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) while performing an Emotional Face Go/Nogo task. PI children showed heightened activity of the amygdala, a region that supports emotional learning and reactivity to emotional stimuli, and corresponding decreases in cortical regions that support perceptual and cognitive functions. Amygdala activity was associated with decreased eye-contact as measured by eye-tracking methods and during a live dyadic interaction. The association between early rearing environment and subsequent eye-contact was mediated by amygdala activity. These data support the hypothesis that early adversity alters human brain development in a way that can persist into childhood, and they offer insight into the socio-emotional disturbances in human behavior following early adversity.

Evaluation of equivalent efficacy of sinemet and sinemet CR in patients with Parkinson's disease applying levodopa dosage conversion formula.

We report ease of conversion, effect on equivalent efficacy and frequency of dosing when immediate-release carbidopa/levodopa (Sinemet, IR-CL, DuPont Pharma, Wilmington, DE, U.S.A.) is replaced with controlled-release carbidopa/levodopa (Sinemet CR, CR-CL, DuPont Pharma, Wilmington, DE, U.S.A.) in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). One-step conversion through the application of a mathematical formula was utilized. Fifty-two patients (35 men, 17 women) with a mean +/- SD age of 72 +/- 8 years participated in this open-label study. All patients were taking IR-CL prior to conversion. The Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) was used for efficacy assessment. Pharmacokinetic studies were undertaken in five patients while they were on IR-CL, and repeated after they were switched to CR-CL. Dosage adjustment was not required either immediately after converting or during the 6-month follow-up. No significant changes occurred in efficacy scores during follow-up visits, indicating the effectiveness of the conversion. There were substantial differences in the level of plasma DOPA, dopamine, 3-O-methyldopa, homovanillic acid, and dihydroxyphenylacetic acid between patients receiving IR-CL and those receiving CR-CL, but the differences did not correlate with clinical changes, suggesting that plasma levels do not reflect tissue levels at the site of action for levodopa. This study demonstrates that conversion from IR-CL to CR-CL for optimal dosing may be achieved in one step through the application of a mathematical formula with ease of conversion and reduction of number of doses.

Effects of L-DOPA/carbidopa administration on the levels of L-DOPA, other amino acids and related compounds in the plasma, brain and heart of the rat.

Rats were treated intraperitoneally with a mixture of 250 mg/kg L-DOPA and 40 mg/kg carbidopa or with vehicle and sacrificed 30 min later. Plasma, heart and cortex, midbrain, brainstem and cerebellum were removed from each animal and assayed by HPLC for L-DOPA and a large number of amino acids and related amino compounds. L-DOPA levels increased from undetectable (<0.2 nmol/ml or g) to 1,146, 1,007, 399, 376, 368 and 850 nmol/ml or g in the above tissues. In addition, several amino compounds were significantly affected by L-DOPA/carbidopa (p < or = 0.01). Plasma concentrations of phosphoserine, oxidized glutathione, citrulline, phenylalanine, tyrosine and 1-methylhistidine increased and arginine, glutamic acid and lysine decreased. In the heart, concentrations of phosphoserine, taurine, reduced glutathione, threonine, serine, glutamine, glycine, alanine, valine, GABA, ethanolamine, ammonia and arginine decreased. In the cortex, camosine and homocarnosine increased. In the midbrain, valine increased and leucine, ornithine and oxidized glutathione decreased. In the cerebellum, citrulline increased. In the brainstem, threonine, serine, asparagine, glutamine, oxidized glutathione, alanine, and leucine decreased. In the brainstem, arginine was slightly decreased with a concomitant increase in citrulline (p < 0.05), indicative of nitrous oxide formation. These results show that administration of L-DOPA/ carbidopa not only raises dopamine levels but can also affect other biochemicals and that the observed changes in amino acids and related compounds can perhaps contribute to the beneficial and/or adverse effects of L-DOPA/carbidopa therapy of Parkinson's disease.

Levels of taurine, amino acids and related compounds in plasma, vena cava, aorta and heart of rats after taurine administration.

A pharmacokinetic study on the fate of administered taurine in blood and some tissues and the effects on other amino compounds is presented. Injection of taurine (0.8 g/kg i.p.) causes markedly elevated plasma levels (70-fold at 15 min) which decrease later and approach baseline values after about 4 h. Concomitantly, other plasma amino compounds such as ornithine, threonine, asparagine, glutamine, alanine, citrulline, tyrosine, tryptophan, glycine, ammonia and arginine are reduced, whereas beta-alanine and phosphoserine are increased. At 30 min, tissue levels of taurine are roughly doubled in the vena cava and heart and tripled in the aorta. Other amino compounds affected are aspartic acid, serine, valine, methionine, tyrosine, ammonia, lysine, histidine, and arginine in the vena cava; aspartic acid, reduced glutathione, serine, and ammonia in the aorta; and reduced glutathione, alanine, citrulline and methionine in the heart. In most of these cases, plasma changes do not predict tissue changes which are generally substance- and tissue-specific. Thus, pharmacological effects seen after taurine administration could be caused by elevated taurine levels per se and/or taurine-induced changes in some of the amino acids and related compounds.

Effect of ethanol on amino acids and related compounds in rat plasma, heart, aorta, bronchus, and pancreas.

The composition of 36 amino acids and related amino compounds is presented for plasma, aorta, heart, pancreas, and bronchi. The distribution pattern of these biochemicals is similar but not identical among the tissues. The effect of an acute dose of ethanol (2 g/kg, i.p.) on these amino acids and related compounds was then studied. In the plasma, alanine, arginine, aspartic acid, beta-alanine, glycine, phenylalanine, and serine are decreased. In the aorta, ammonia and taurine are decreased. In the heart, aspartic acid and leucine are decreased, and carnosine, GABA, glutamic acid, and ornithine are increased. In the pancreas, asparagine and taurine are decreased, and citrulline, cysteine, histidine, and isoleucine are increased. In the bronchi, GABA, ethanolamine, histidine, taurine, and isoleucine are decreased. A number of correlations of some compounds in plasma or tissues were found but differed often between control and ethanol-treated animals. Ethanol-induced tissue changes generally do not correlate with plasma changes and are mostly specific for a given tissue.

In vivo modulation of excitatory amino acid receptors: microdialysis studies on N-methyl-D-aspartate-evoked striatal dopamine release and effects of antagonists.

Striatal dopamine (DA) release was measured following intrastriatal (i.s.) administration of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) to unanesthetized, freely-moving rats. One hour after insertion of a removable microdialysis probe and perfusion with normal Ringer's solution, a modified Ringer's solution containing 100 mM potassium (high-K+ Ringer's) was used to standardize the preparation. DA release following i.s. administration of NMDA (12.5 mM in normal Ringer's) was dose-dependent. When NMDA (12.5 mM) was administered in high-K+ Ringer's, DA release was greatly potentiated. Administration of the competitive NMDA receptor antagonist aminophosphonovalerate (APV) in normal Ringer's prior to treatment with NMDA in high-K+ Ringer's resulted in a significant reduction of DA release compared to control animals. In contrast, administration of APV priot to treatment with NMDA in normal Ringer's resulted in a significantly increased release of DA compared to controls. Administration of the non-competitive NMDA antagonist, dextromethorphan (DXT) prior to treatment with NMDA in normal Ringer's or NMDA in high-K+ Ringer's caused significant reductions of DA release compared to controls. Intrastriatal DXT also caused dose-dependent inhibition of high-K+ Ringer's-induced DA release. Similarly, administration of the non-specific calcium channel blocker, cadmium, prior to treatment with NMDA resulted in a significant decrease when compared to control values. Results of this study indicate that dose-dependent NMDA-induced striatal DA release is greatly potentiated by potassium suggesting that under physiological conditions in vivo, striatal NMDA receptors are mostly inactivated.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Partial characterization of kainic acid-induced striatal dopamine release using in vivo microdialysis.

The aim of this study was to characterize interactions between striatal kainate (KA) receptors and dopamine (DA) release using in vivo microdialysis. After insertion of a microdialysis probe and establishment of baseline DA release, each preparation was standardized with a pulse of an iso-osmotic solution of 100 mM KCl in Ringer's solution. DA release following pharmacological manipulation was compared to potassium-induced release and expressed as a percent value. In one group of animals, KA (12.5 mM in Ringer's solution) was administered via the microdialysis probe in 2, 3, 5 or 10 min pulses 30 min following standardization with potassium resulting in release of DA which was 15.7 +/- 3.9, 30.3 +/- 11.3, 67.5 +/- 15.0 and 92.9 +/- 19.8% of potassium-induced DA release, respectively. Perfusion of CdCl2 (0.6 mM in Ringer's solution) 30-45 min prior to a 10 min KA pulse significantly reduced KA-induced DA release compared to control values. Intrastriatal administration of kynurenate (Kyn) attenuated KA-induced DA release in a dose-dependent manner. Levels of DA metabolites in striatal perfusates were significantly reduced following KA administration. This effect was partially reversed by cadmium pretreatment but not affected by Kyn pretreatment. Findings of this study indicate that KA induces striatal DA release in a dose-dependent manner, and this effect is at least partially dependent upon activation of calcium channels. Results also indicate dose-dependent inhibition of KA-induced striatal DA release by the excitatory amino acid receptor antagonist, Kyn, suggesting that this compound interacts with striatal KA receptors and that these receptors are involved with modulating striatal DA release in vivo.

Cerebrospinal fluid as a reflector of central cholinergic and amino acid neurotransmitter activity in cerebellar ataxia.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) amino acid neurotransmitters, related compounds, and their precursors, choline levels, and acetylcholinesterase activity were measured in the CSF of patients with cerebellar ataxia during a randomized, double-blind, crossover, placebo-controlled clinical trial of physostigmine salicylate. The CSF gamma-aminobutyric acid, methionine, and choline levels, adjusted for age, were significantly lower in patients with cerebellar ataxia compared with controls. Physostigmine selectively reduced the level of CSF isoleucine and elevated the levels of phosphoethanolamine. No change occurred in CSF acetylcholinesterase activity and in the levels of plasma amino compounds in patients with cerebellar ataxia when compared with controls. Median ataxia scores did not statistically differ between placebo and physostigmine nor did functional improvement occur in any of the patients.

Detection of several novel gamma-aminobutyric acid-containing compounds in human CSF.

gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) concentrations in human CSF are known to increase significantly after hydrolysis; however, the source of this increase has been unknown. Using either ion-exchange or reverse-phase chromatography coupled with on-line alkaline hydrolysis, we have shown 2-pyrrolidinone, the lactam of GABA, to be present in insufficient quantity to account for this increase. Subsequent experiments involving fraction collection of column eluents followed by acid hydrolysis and rechromatography demonstrated the presence of several previously undetected GABA-containing compounds.

Brain amino acid concentrations in rats killed by decapitation and microwave irradiation.

The effect of death by decapitation or focused beam microwave irradiation (FBMI) on rat brain amino acid concentrations was investigated. Twenty-nine amino acids and related compounds were measured by ion-exchange chromatography in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, striatum and substantia nigra of male Sprague-Dawley rats killed by decapitation (n = 5) or by FBMI (n = 5). Alanine, GABA, ethanolamine and NH3 concentrations were significantly lower in all 4 brain regions of the FBMI group animals. Valine, leucine, tyrosine and phenylalanine levels were also lower in the hippocampus, striatum and substantia nigra of the FBMI group. The FBMI group showed less aspartate in the hippocampus and substantia nigra as well as less glycine in the cortex, hippocampus and striatum. In the FBMI group, the only amino acids exhibiting significantly higher levels were GSH in the striatum and substantia nigra and glutamate in the substantia nigra. These results show a significant impact of method of killing on the determination of baseline concentrations of brain amino acids.

Chronic lithium treatment and status epilepticus induced by lithium and pilocarpine cause selective changes of amino acid concentrations in rat brain regions.

We measured the effects of four weeks of dietary lithium treatment and of status epilepticus induced by administration of pilocarpine to lithium-treated rats on the concentrations of amino acids in four regions of rat brain: cerebral cortex, hippocampus, striatum, and substantia nigra. To ensure accurate quantitation of the amino acids, animals were sacrificed by focussed beam microwave irradiation and amino acids were measured using a fully validated triple-column ion-exchanged amino acid analyzer with post-column o-phthalaldehyde derivatization and fluorometric detection. The concentrations of four amino acids, threonine, methionine, lysine and tyrosine, were increased significantly in two to four brain regions by chronic lithium treatment. Their concentrations remained elevated, or were further increased, during status epilepticus. The concentrations of eight amino acids and ammonia were not altered by lithium treatment but increased in concentration during status epilepticus in some brain regions. Glycine, serine, arginine and citrulline were decreased by chronic lithium treatment. Status epilepticus increased the concentrations of these four amino acids above that found in the lithium-treated samples in some of the brain regions that were examined. Six amino acids and glutathione were generally unaltered by both treatments. These results are related to the effects of lithium treatment and are compared with changes reported by others following treatment with a variety of convulsive stimuli.

Amino acid profiles in Long-Evans rat superior colliculus, visual cortex, and inferior colliculus.

An ultrasensitive triple-column ion-exchange/fluorometric method was utilized to measure the levels of over 30 amino acids and related primary amino compounds in Long-Evans rat superior colliculus (SC), visual cortex (VC) and inferior colliculus (IC). Comparison of levels of amino compounds revealed distinctly different profiles for each region. Major constituents were the neurotransmitters and related compounds glutamate, glutamine, GABA, taurine, aspartate and glycine. Glutathione levels were also relatively high in all three regions. SC exhibited a significantly higher level of GABA and beta-alanine compared to both VC and IC. VC had significantly higher levels of glutamate and taurine. VC exhibited the lowest level of glycine and IC the highest. A time-course experiment using SC documented that levels of eleven of thirty-four compounds, including GABA, were subject to significant postmortem alteration in vitro. SC GABA stability experiments indicated that significant in vitro increases of free GABA levels between 1 and 4 min postmortem were associated with equimolar decreases of conjugated GABA levels.

Cerebrospinal fluid amino compounds in Parkinson's disease. Alterations due to carbidopa/levodopa.

Employing a triple-column ion-exchange/fluorometric procedure, 29 amino compounds, including amino acid neurotransmitters, were measured in lumbar cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from two groups of patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease de novo (n = 6) and those who were treated with carbidopa/levodopa (n = 6), and from neurologically normal controls (n = 10). Consideration was given to in vivo and in vitro factors known to influence levels of various CSF constituents. Results showed statistically significant decreases in the levels of gamma-aminobutyric acid, homocarnosine, phosphoethanolamine, and threonine, and elevation of ornithine levels, in the CSF of de novo patients with Parkinson's disease compared with controls. These changes "normalized" following treatment with carbidopa/levodopa. This study suggests that Parkinson's disease may be characterized by defects in specific amino compound metabolic pathways, resulting in central nervous system amino compound imbalances that may contribute to the pathophysiology of this disorder. Carbidopa/levodopa therapy tends to "normalize" these amino compound imbalances.

Brain gamma-aminobutyric acid abnormality in tardive dyskinesia. Reduction in cerebrospinal fluid GABA levels and therapeutic response to GABA agonist treatment.

A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of gamma-vinyl gamma-aminobutyric acid (GVG) and 4,5,6,7-tetrahydroisoxazolo-(5,4-c) pyridine-3-ol (THIP) was carried out in drug-free schizophrenic patients with tardive dyskinesia. A significant decrease in dyskinetic symptoms occurred with the administration of GVG, associated with a twofold increase in cerebrospinal fluid levels of GABA; THIP produced a more moderate, yet consistent decrease in the involuntary movements. A pathophysiologic role for gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-mediated neuronal transmission in tardive dyskinesia was explored by analyzing cerebrospinal fluid GABA concentrations in drug-free schizophrenic patients with and without tardive dyskinesia. A significant reduction in cerebrospinal fluid levels of GABA was observed in the dyskinetic schizophrenics compared with the nondyskinetic controls. These data compliment a growing body of experimental evidence suggesting a critical role for GABA-ergic neurons in the pathophysiology of tardive dyskinesia.

Isoniazid-induced alteration of CSF neurotransmitter amino acids in Huntington's disease.

During a randomized, double-blind, crossover, placebo-controlled clinical trial of isoniazid (plus pyridoxine) in Huntington's disease (HD), amino acids and related amino compounds were measured in both cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma utilizing a newly developed high-performance liquid chromatography ion-exchange/fluorometric assay method. Results showed that isoniazid (plus pyridoxine) significantly elevated the mean (+/- S.E.M.) levels of gamma-aminobutyric acid, aspartate, asparagine, homocarnosine, ornithine, histidine, alpha-aminobutyric acid, isoleucine, leucine and alanine in CSF and the levels of beta-alanine in both CSF and plasma. These alterations can be traced to inhibition of decarboxylation and transamination reactions requiring the cofactor pyridoxal phosphate and may be related to the observed equivocal clinical response in the HD patients. The differential influence of isoniazid on plasma and CSF amino acid profiles suggests that alterations of CNS amino acid metabolism may be reflected in CSF, and that isoniazid-induced alterations of amino acid metabolism in the CNS differ from those in the periphery.

Effect of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) on levels of glutathione in the extrapyramidal system of the mouse.

Treatment of mice with the proximate neurotoxin MPTP depletes striatal dopamine levels. Depletion of striatal dopamine and metabolites in MPTP-treated mice is accompanied by depletion of glutathione (GSH) in the substantia nigra (SN). Striatal GSH and nigral amino acid levels were not significantly affected by MPTP. Results suggest that GSH depletion in SN may represent an index of regional vulnerability to metabolic oxidative stress and also of selective susceptibility to the toxic effects of MPTP.