[Prognostic factors and profile in traumatic brain injury in the paediatric age]. / Perfil y factores pronósticos en el traumatismo craneoencefálico en la edad pediátrica.

INTRODUCTION: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a common cause of death and disability in the paediatric population, although the literature on the Spanish population is scarce. From the perspective of early vulnerability, recent research findings suggest that early brain injury has worse sequelae and a higher risk of impact. AIMS: To analyse the intelligence profile, executive functions and behaviour, and examine the association between age at the time of the injury, severity of the TBI and environmental factors for cognitive and behavioural outcomes. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Seventy-one participants with moderate to severe TBI, from 6 to 16 years of age, were assessed with measures of intelligence (intelligence quotient), executive functions and behaviour. RESULTS: Children with TBI are at increased risk of disability in all aspects of intelligence, executive functions and behaviour. Children who suffered a traumatic brain injury in infancy and the preschool period had more overall effects on intelligence quotient and some aspects of the executive functions. CONCLUSIONS: Socioeconomic and cultural factors are the best predictors for intelligence quotient and behaviour. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the sequelae of TBI in children, which will help in rehabilitation planning and re-adaptation to functional life.

TITLE: Perfil y factores pronósticos en el traumatismo craneoencefálico en la edad pediátrica.Introducción. El traumatismo craneoencefálico (TCE) es una causa común de muerte y discapacidad en la población pediátrica, aunque la bibliografía en población española sea escasa. Desde la perspectiva de la vulnerabilidad temprana, los hallazgos de investigaciones recientes sugieren que la lesión cerebral temprana tiene peores secuelas y un mayor riesgo de impacto. Objetivos. Analizar el perfil de la inteligencia, las funciones ejecutivas y el comportamiento, y examinar la asociación de la edad a la lesión, la gravedad del TCE y los factores ambientales para los resultados cognitivos y conductuales. Pacientes y métodos. Setenta y un participantes con TCE moderado a grave, con edades entre 6 y 16 años, fueron evaluados con medidas de inteligencia (cociente intelectual), funciones ejecutivas y comportamiento. Resultados. Los niños con TCE tienen un mayor riesgo de discapacidad en todos los aspectos de inteligencia, funciones ejecutivas y comportamiento. Los niños que sufrieron una lesión cerebral traumática en la infancia y preescolar registraron más efectos globales en el cociente intelectual y algunos aspectos de las funciones ejecutivas. Conclusiones. Los factores socioeconómicos y culturales son los mejores predictores para el cociente intelectual y el comportamiento. Estos hallazgos contribuyen a una mejor comprensión de las secuelas de TCE en los niños para ayudar en la planificación de rehabilitación y la readaptación a la vida funcional.

Efficacy of a new parent and school-supported intervention after moderate and severe childhood traumatic brain injury. / Eficacia de una nueva intervencion de apoyo a padres y escuelas despues de un traumatismo craneoencefalico moderado o grave.

INTRODUCTION: Traumatic brain injury is a common cause of acquired disability during childhood. Early interventions focusing on parenting practices may prove effective at reducing negative child outcomes. AIM: To determine the efficacy of a new counselling program aimed at parents and schools compared to a control group. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The main study sample was obtained from a paediatric hospital. The final sample consisted of 42 children aged between 6 and 16 years old. RESULTS: Comparing with normative data, pre-post comparisons between groups showed a significant improvement in the parent group with respect to the control group. CONCLUSIONS: The superiority of the parental intervention group over those of the control group was not only statistically significant, but also clinically substantial and meaningful. The results of this study suggest that children with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury can benefit from an intensive supported family treatment.

TITLE: Eficacia de una nueva intervencion de apoyo a padres y escuelas despues de un traumatismo craneoencefalico moderado o grave.Introduccion. El traumatismo craneoencefalico es una causa habitual de discapacidad adquirida durante la infancia. Las intervenciones tempranas que se centran en la participacion de los padres pueden resultar efectivas para reducir las disfunciones del niño. Objetivo. Determinar la eficacia de un nuevo programa de asesoramiento dirigido a padres y escuelas en comparacion con un grupo control. Pacientes y metodos. La muestra principal del estudio se obtuvo de un hospital pediatrico. La muestra final consistio en 42 niños de 6 a 16 años. Resultados. Comparando con los datos normativos, las comparaciones pre y post intragrupos mostraron una mejora significativa en el grupo de intervencion parental con respecto al grupo control. Conclusiones. La superioridad del grupo de intervencion parental sobre el grupo control no solo fue estadisticamente significativa, sino tambien clinicamente sustancial y relevante. Los resultados del estudio sugieren que los niños con traumatismo craneoencefalico moderado o grave pueden beneficiarse de un tratamiento familiar intensivo de apoyo.

Proxy-reported quality of life in adolescents and adults with dyskinetic cerebral palsy is associated with executive functions and cortical thickness.

PURPOSE: Quality of life (QOL) is a key outcome for people with cerebral palsy (CP), and executive functioning is an important predictor of QOL in other health-related conditions. Little is known about this association in CP or about its neural substrate. We aim to analyze the influence of executive functioning (including cognitive flexibility) as well as that of other psychological, motor, communication and socioeconomic variables on QOL and to identify neuroanatomical areas related to QOL in adolescents and adults with CP. METHODS: Fifty subjects diagnosed with dyskinetic CP (mean age 25.96 years) were recruited. Their caregivers completed the primary caregiver proxy report version of the CP QOL-Teen questionnaire. Motor status, communication, IQ, four executive function domains, anxiety/depression and socioeconomic status were evaluated. Correlations and multiple linear regression models were used to relate CP QOL domains and total score to these variables. Thirty-six participants underwent an MRI assessment. Correlations were examined between cortical thickness and CP QOL total score and between cortical thickness and variables that might predict the CP QOL total score. RESULTS: Executive functions predict scores in four domains of CP QOL (General well-being and participation, Communication and physical health, Family health and Feelings about functioning) in the regression model. Among the cognitive domains that comprise executive function, only cognitive flexibility measured in terms of performance on the Wisconsin card sorting test (WCST) predicts the CP QOL total score. Monthly income, fine motor functioning and communication ability predict scores on the domains Access to services and Family Health, Feelings about functioning and School well-being, respectively. The clusters resulting from the correlation between cortical thickness and both CP QOL total score and WCST performance overlapped in the posterior cingulate and precuneus cortices. CONCLUSIONS: Cognitive flexibility predicts proxy report CP QOL-Teen total score in dyskinetic CP. This relationship has its anatomical correlate in the posterior cingulate and precuneus cortices.

Incidencia y tipo de parálisis cerebral en una cohorte de prematuros con edad gestacional menor de 28 semanas / Incidence of cerebral palsy in a cohort of preterm infants with a gestational age of less than 28 weeks

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[Medication-related oculogyric crises: a description of four cases and a review of the literature]. / Crisis oculogiras asociadas a farmacos: descripcion de cuatro casos y revision de la bibliografia.

INTRODUCTION: Oculogyric crises are considered to be a form of focal dystonia and can be observed as reactions to pharmaceuticals. The signs and symptoms may be confused with epileptic crises. AIMS: To describe the clinical features and progress of patients with pharmaceutical-related oculogyric crises and to carry out a review of the topic. CASE REPORTS: We conducted a retrospective, descriptive study of four patients evaluated in the neurology service due to oculogyric crises. The patients had been diagnosed with an associated conduct disorder requiring treatment with antipsychotic drugs. The episodes of oculogyric crises did not correlate with the findings in the electroencephalogram. They responded well to the reduction in dosage or to withdrawal of the apparent causing agent. CONCLUSIONS: The clinical picture does not present only in patients treated with antipsychotics but is also linked with other pharmaceuticals that are frequently used in daily paediatric practice. When oculogyric crises are the reason for visiting, differential diagnoses must be taken into account in order to avoid unnecessary studies and to carry out an appropriate therapeutic management.

Síndrome de Down y encefalitis de Hashimoto / Down syndrome and Hashimoto’s encephalitis

Discusión y revisión de la literatura a partir del caso de un adolescente con síndrome deDown (SD) y sintomatología compatible con encefalitis de Hashimoto (EH).Caso clínico. Varón de 16 años con SD que de forma subaguda inicia síntomas neuropsiquiátricos.Tras confi rmarse una tiroiditis de Hashimoto (TH) y tratado favorablementecon corticoides, se llega al diagnóstico de EH.Discusión. La TH es frecuente sobre todo en pacientes con tendencia a padecer enfermedadesautoinmunes como en el SD. La EH se trata de una patología escasamente descritaen la edad pediátrica, tratable, que sólo ha sido comunicada en 2 pacientes con SD (AU)

This review and discussion of current literature is based on the case of a teenager withDown syndrome (DS) who presents symptoms compatible with Hashimoto’s encephalitis(HE).Clinical case. A sixteen-year-old male with DS had a subacute onset of neuropsychiatricsymptoms. Hashimoto’s thyroiditis (HT) was confi rmed and steroid treatment initiated,with positive results, so the diagnosis of HE was made.Discussion. HT is a particularly common disease among patients that usually haveautoimmune disorders, such as persons with DS. HE is a treatable condition that is poorlyrecognized in children and has been reported only twice with DS (AU)

Response to creatine analogs in fibroblasts and patients with creatine transporter deficiency.

Creatine transporter (CRTR) deficiency is one of the most frequent causes of X-linked mental retardation. The lack of an effective treatment for this disease, in contrast to creatine (Cr) biosynthesis disorders that respond to Cr monohydrate (CM), led us to analyze the efficacy of a lipophilic molecule derived from Cr, creatine ethyl ester (CEE), in fibroblasts and patients with CRTR deficiency. CM and CEE uptake studies were performed in six controls and four fibroblast cell lines from patients. We found a significant increase in Cr uptake after 72 h of incubation with CEE (500 micromol/L) in patients and control fibroblasts compared to incubation with CM. Subsequently, we assayed the clinical effect of CEE administration in four patients with CRTR deficiency. After 1 year of treatment, a lack of significant improvement in neuropsychological assessment or changes in Cr level in brain (1)H MRS was observed, and CEE was discontinued. In conclusion, this 12-month trial with CEE did not increase the brain concentration of Cr. Our in vitro data lend support to the idea of a certain passive transport of CEE in both pathological and control cells, although more lipophilic molecules or other cell systems that mimic the BBB should be used for a better approach to the in vivo system.

Mental retardation and inborn errors of metabolism.

In countries where clinical phenylketonuria is detected by newborn screening inborn errors of metabolism are rare causes of isolated mental retardation. There is no international agreement about what type of metabolic tests must be applied in patients with unspecific mental retardation. However, and although infrequent, there are a number of inborn errors of metabolism that can present in this way. Because of the high recurrence risk and the possibility of specific therapies, guidelines need to be developed and adapted to different populations. The application of a universal protocol may result in a low diagnostic performance in individual ethnic populations. Consideration of associated signs (extraneurological manifestations, psychiatric signs, autistic traits, cerebellar dysfunction, epilepsy or dysmorphic traits) greatly improves the diagnostic fulfilment.

Long-term evolution of eight Spanish patients with CDG type Ia: typical and atypical manifestations.

Congenital disorder of glycosylation Ia (CDG-Ia) is a metabolic disease with a broad spectrum of clinical signs, including recently described mild phenotypes. Our aim was to describe the clinical presentation and follow-up of eight CDG-Ia patients highlighting atypical features and aspects of evolution of the disease. CDG diagnosis was confirmed by enzymatic analysis of phosphomannomutase (PMM2) and molecular studies of the PMM2 gene. Four neonates presented with cerebral haemorrhage (1), failure to thrive (2) and non-immune hydrops (1) and a fatal course to death (2); pathological examination of the brain in one case revealed olivopontocerebellar atrophy of prenatal origin. During infancy failure to thrive, coagulopathy and hepatopathy were the most significant causes of morbidity, but these disappeared after the first years of life in most patients. Three patients are currently in their 20s; they present mental retardation and severe motor impairment but no acute decompensations were noticed after the first decade of life. They do not present spinal or thoracic deformities otherwise observed in patients from northern countries. A 10-year-old patient who manifested gastrointestinal dysfunction in early childhood showed normal neurodevelopment. Mutation analysis of the PMM2 gene showed great variability, with all patients being compound heterozygous for two different mutations. Long-term evolution in our patients indicates that CDG-Ia is a stable systemic and neurological condition after the first decade of life. The diverse phenotypes and atypical manifestations in our series may be due to their genetic heterogeneity.

Arginine supplementation in four patients with X-linked creatine transporter defect.

BACKGROUND: Treatment with oral creatine monohydrate has not shown efficacy in patients with creatine transporter deficiency (CRTR-D). Another therapeutic option proposed is L-arginine, the substrate for the enzyme L-arginine:glycine amidinotransferase (AGAT). We evaluate clinical characteristics and cerebral creatine replenishment after L-arginine therapy in four patients with CRTR-D. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Four boys with genetically confirmed diagnosis of CRTR-D (ages 9-16 years) were supplemented with L-arginine (0.4 g/kg per day) for a period of 9 months. Treatment efficacy was evaluated by clinical and neuropsychological assessment and determination of creatine signals by brain proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy ((1)H-MRS). RESULTS: Epileptic seizures remained well controlled with antiepileptic drugs in three cases, both before and after L-arginine supplementation. Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Scale did not show any change in communication, daily living skills, socialization or motor skills, and a lack of improvement in brain (1)H-MRS follow-up was observed. L-Arginine was discontinued at the end of the observation period. CONCLUSIONS: Nine months of L-arginine supplementation did not show effectiveness in the four patients affected with CRTR-D in this protocol.

[Botulinum toxin in infantile cerebral palsy]. / Toxina botulínica en la parálisis cerebral infantil.

INTRODUCTION: A number of studies have proved the effectiveness and safety of botulinum toxin in therapeutic doses. AIM: To analyse the results obtained over a 12-year period in which botulinum toxin type A (BTA) was used to treat infantile cerebral palsy (CP). PATIENTS AND METHODS: Of a total number of 547 patients who were treated, 515 had CP, 464 with spasticity, 46 with mixed CP and 5 with dyskinetic CP with focal dystonia. RESULTS: Overall evaluation of BTA is positive, both as regards its beneficial effects and its safety: tone was mildly improved in 18.5% of patients, with no change in motor functioning, 39% showed a moderate improvement, 19% a marked improvement and 5.6% experienced a marked and prolonged improvement. Forty-two patients (8.15%) presented side effects, the most common being weakness in the lower limbs, which occurred in 21 cases. CONCLUSIONS: BTA is a good therapeutic option for treating children with CP, not only for the focal involvement but also as palliative treatment in children with diffuse involvement.

Toxina botulínica en la parálisis cerebral infantil / Botulinum toxin in infantile cerebral palsy

Introducción. Numerosos estudios han demostrado la eficacia y la seguridad de la toxina botulínica en dosis terapéuticas.Objetivo. Analizar los resultados obtenidos durante 12 años de utilización de la toxina botulínica de tipo A (TBA) para el tratamiento de la parálisis cerebral (PC) infantil. Pacientes y métodos. De 547 pacientes tratados, 515 presentaban PC, 464 con espasticidad, 46 con PC mixta y 5 con PC discinética con distonía focal. Resultados. La valoración global de la TBA es positiva, tanto por sus efectos beneficiosos como por su seguridad: el 18,5% de los pacientes presentó una mejoría leve en el tono, sin cambio en la función motriz, el 39% presentó una mejoría moderada, el 19% una mejoría marcada y el 5,6% una mejoría marcada y prolongada. Cuarenta y dos pacientes (8,15%) presentaron efectos secundarios, de los cuales la debilidadde las extremidades inferiores fue el más frecuente, presente en 21casos. Conclusiones. La TBA constituye una buena opción terapéutica para el tratamiento de niños con PC, no sólo para la afectación focal, sino también como tratamiento paliativo en niños con afectación difusa

Introduction. A number of studies have proved the effectiveness and safety of botulinum toxin in therapeutic doses.Aim. To analyse the results obtained over a 12-year period in which botulinum toxin type A (BTA) was used to treat infantile cerebral palsy (CP). Patients and methods. Of a total number of 547 patients who were treated, 515 had CP, 464 with spasticity,46 with mixed CP and 5 with dyskinetic CP with focal dystonia. Results. Overall evaluation of BTA is positive, both as regards its beneficial effects and its safety: tone was mildly improved in 18.5% of patients, with no change in motor functioning, 39% showed a moderate improvement, 19% a marked improvement and 5.6% experienced a marked and prolonged improvement. Forty-two patients (8.15%) presented side effects, the most common being weakness in the lower limbs, which occurred in 21 cases. Conclusions. BTA is a good therapeutic option for treating children with CP, not only for the focal involvement but also as palliative treatment in children with diffuse involvementu

[Neurologic presentation in haemolytic-uraemic syndrome]. / Manifestaciones neurológicas en el síndrome hemolítico urémico.

INTRODUCTION: Haemolytic-uraemic syndrome (HUS) is characterized by microangiopathic hemolytic anaemia, thrombopenia and multiorganic aggression, specially renal, gastrointestinal and central nervous system disturbances. Sporadic in Spain (2/1,500,000 inhabitants), its clinical onset includes acute renal failure, hypertension and central nervous system symptoms (irritability, drowsiness, convulsions, cortical blindness, hemiparesia or coma), due to metabolic distress, hypertension or central nervous system microangiopathy. Few long-term outcome studies have been published. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A retrospective analysis of a series of 58 patients with HUS between 1981 and 2006, is reported. Clinical onset, laboratory, electrophysiology, neuroimaging tests, and prognosis factors are reviewed, together with long-term clinical outcome. RESULTS: 22 children presented neurologic symptoms, seven had some neurological test; one patient died; in five some neurological sequelae persisted (hemiparesia, cognitive deficit, visual-perception deficit), the other 16 remaining asymptomatic. CONCLUSIONS: Neurological morbility is high in HUS (27% of the children with neurological symptoms), with a 1.7% mortality. Seizure at onset was not a poor prognosis factor in our group. No positive correlation can be established between neuroimaging and long-term outcome.

Manifestaciones neurológicas en el síndrome hemolítico urémico / Neurologic presentation in haemolytic uraemic syndrome

Introducción. El síndrome hemolítico urémico (SHU) se define como anemia hemolítica microangiopática, trombopenia y daño multiparenquimatoso fundamentalmente renal, con frecuente afectación digestiva y del sistema nervioso central. En España es esporádico (incidencia 2/1.500.000 habitantes). Las manifestaciones iniciales incluyen insuficiencia renal aguda, hipertensión arterial y sintomatología neurológica (irritabilidad, somnolencia, convulsiones, ceguera cortical, hemiparesiao coma), que puede deberse a una alteración metabólica, hipertensión arterial o microangiopatía del sistema nervioso central. Además del tratamiento específico del SHU, es fundamental la valoración y seguimiento del estado neurológico para prevenir secuelas. Existen pocas referencias bibliográficas acerca de la evolución neurológica a largo plazo. Pacientes y métodos. Estudio retrospectivo de algunos factores relacionados con el pronóstico y análisis de la evolución neurológica a largo plazo de pacientes con SHU mediante una revisión de los pacientes con SHU con manifestaciones neurológicas en fase aguda tratados en nuestro centro entre 1981 y 2006. Se analizan la clínica, analítica, estudios electrofi-siológicos y neuroimagen, y su correlación con la evolución a medio y largo plazo. Resultados. De los 58 niños con SHU, 22 presentaron síntomas neurológicos en fase aguda: en siete se realizó alguna exploración complementaria neurológica; un paciente falleció, en cinco persistió algún déficit neurológico (hemiparesia, déficit cognitivo o déficit visuoperceptivo) y 16 permanecieron asintomáticos.Conclusiones. El SHU con clínica neurológica inicial asocia una alta morbilidad (un 27% de los niños con clínica neurológica), con mortalidad del 1,7%. Las convulsiones en la fase aguda no supusieron un factor de mal pronóstico en nuestro grupo. No se puede establecer una correlación entre los hallazgos de neuroimagen y la evolución a largo plazo

Introduction. Haemolytic-uraemic syndrome (HUS) is characterized by microangiopathic hemolytic anaemia,thrombopenia and multiorganic aggression, specially renal, gastrointestinal and central nervous system disturbances. Sporadic in Spain (2/1,500,000 inhabitants), its clinical onset includes acute renal failure, hypertension and central nervous systemsymptoms (irritability, drowsiness, convulsions, cortical blindness, hemiparesia or coma), due to metabolic distress, hypertension or central nervous system microangiopathy. Few long-term outcome studies have been published. Patients and methods. A retrospective analysis of a series of 58 patients with HUS between 1981 and 2006, is reported. Clinical onset, laboratory, electrophysiology, neuroimaging tests, and prognosis factors are reviewed, together with long-term clinical outcome. Results. 22 children presented neurologic symptoms, seven had some neurological test; one patient died; in five some neurological sequelae persisted (hemiparesia, cognitive deficit, visual-perception deficit), the other 16 remaining asymptomatic.Conclusions. Neurological morbility is high in HUS (27% of the children with neurological symptoms), with a 1.7% mortality. Seizure at onset was not a poor prognosis factor in our group. No positive correlation can be established between neuroimaging and long-term outcome

[Moebius sequence: clinico-radiological findings]. / Secuencia de Moebius: hallazgos clinicorradiológicos.

INTRODUCTION: Moebius syndrome is an infrequent congenital, non-progressive disorder that is defined by facial palsy (usually bilateral) and oculomotor compromise. Its clinical spectrum is variable but it affects other cranial nerves and is associated with multiple malformations. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We report the clinical, neurological and neuroimaging features and the progress of 20 patients (16 males and 4 females) who satisfied diagnostic criteria for Moebius sequence. RESULTS: Ages at the first visit ranged from 9 days to 23 months. Births had been normal in 50% of the patients. Facial nerve compromise was observed in all cases, 70% being bilateral. Cranial nerves VI (85%), XII (40%), VIII (25%) and IX (60%) were also involved. Perinatal respiratory distress was seen in 35% of the patients, apnoeas in 25% and retarded development in 60% of cases. They also presented other associated malformations such as microretrognathia, ogival palate, club foot, hand and foot malformations, and four cases presented unilateral agenesis of the pectoralis major. An electromyogram study showed absence of spontaneous and voluntary activity and muscle evoked potentials on stimulating the facial nerve; magnetic resonance imaging of the brain showed hypoplasia of the trunk, agenesis of the cranial nerves and abnormalities in the posterior fossa in three of the ten cases in which the scan was performed. CONCLUSIONS: The association of multiple malformations and dysfunction of the cranial nerves suggests a disruption in the process of morphogenesis during the embryonic period, and therefore Moebius syndrome is considered to be a malformative sequence.

Secuencia de Moebius: hallazgos clinicorradiológicos / Moebius sequence: clinico-radiological findings

Introducción. El síndrome de Moebius es un trastorno congénito infrecuente y no progresivo, definido por una parálisis facial habitualmente bilateral y afectación oculomotora. Su espectro clínico es variable, afecta a otros pares craneales y se asocia con malformaciones múltiples. Pacientes y métodos. Se describen las características clínicas, neurológicas, de neuroimagen y evolución de 20 pacientes, 16 de sexo masculino y 4 de sexo femenino, que cumplen los criterios diagnósticos de la secuencia de Moebius. Resultados. El rango de edad en la primera consulta fue de 9 días a 23 meses. El 50% nació mediante parto eutócico. Todos los casos presentaron la afectación del nervio facial, el 70% bilateral. Otros pares afectados fueron el VI (85%), XII (40%), VIII (25%) y IX (60%). Un 35% presentó distrés respiratorio perinatal, apneas en un 25% y retraso del desarrollo en el 60% de los casos. Presentaron otras malformaciones asociadas como microrretrognatia, paladar ojival, pies zambos, malformaciones en manos y pies, y cuatro casos presentaron agenesia del pectoral mayor unilateral. El electromiograma mostró ausencia de la actividad espontánea, voluntaria y potenciales musculares evocados al estímulo del nervio facial, y en la resonancia magnética cerebral se observaron hipoplasia del tronco, agenesia de los pares craneales y anomalías de la fosa posterior en tres casos de los diez en los cuales se realizó. Conclusión. La asociación de malformaciones múltiples y la disfunción de los pares craneales sugieren una disrupción en la morfogénesis del tronco en el período embrionario, por lo que el síndrome de Moebius se considera una secuencia malformativa

Introduction. Moebius syndrome is an infrequent congenital, non-progressive disorder that is defined by facial palsy (usually bilateral) and oculomotor compromise. Its clinical spectrum is variable but it affects other cranial nerves and is associated with multiple malformations. Patients and methods.We report the clinical, neurological and neuroimaging features and the progress of 20 patients (16 males and 4 females) who satisfied diagnostic criteria for Moebius sequence. Results. Ages at the first visit ranged from 9 days to 23 months. Births had been normal in 50% of the patients. Facial nerve compromise was observed in all cases, 70% being bilateral. Cranial nerves VI (85%), XII (40%), VIII (25%) and IX (60%) were also involved. Perinatal respiratory distress was seen in 35% of the patients, apnoeas in 25% and retarded development in 60% of cases. They also presented other associated malformations such as microretrognathia, ogival palate, club foot, hand and foot malformations, and four cases presented unilateral agenesis of the pectoralis major. An electromyogram study showed absence of spontaneous and voluntary activity and muscle evoked potentials on stimulating the facial nerve; magnetic resonance imaging of the brain showed hypoplasia of the trunk, agenesis of the cranial nerves and abnormalities in the posterior fossa in three of the ten cases in which the scan was performed. Conclusions. The association of multiple malformations and dysfunction of the cranial nerves suggests a disruption in the process of morphogenesis during the embryonic period, and therefore Moebius syndrome is considered to be a malformative sequence

[Guidelines for the treatment of child spasticity using botulinum toxin]. / Guía terapéutica de la espasticidad infantil con toxina botulínica.

AIMS: The introduction of botulinum toxin has been a significant step forward in the treatment of spasticity in children and is now considered to be the preferred treatment in focal spasticity. With the aim of optimising this therapeutic resource, a group of Spanish neurologists and specialists in rehabilitation have drawn up these therapeutic guidelines based on the currently available evidence on its use and indications, and on their own experience. DEVELOPMENT: Spasticity in childhood is mainly caused by infantile cerebral palsy. Its natural history is not favourable due to the negative effect of growth and it should be treated before permanent deformities in bones and joints appear. Treatment with botulinum toxin diminishes hyperactivity and muscle tone, and allows the muscle to grow longitudinally, which prevents permanent contractions. The advantages of botulinum toxin are obvious (ease of use and dosing, long-lasting effects, reversibility in case of adverse responses, and so forth) and outnumber by far the few drawbacks it offers. Before it can be used patients, treatment goals and the muscle areas to be treated must all be selected correctly and, at the same time, a tailored rehabilitation scheme must also be developed. The growing body of experience suggests that its early administration is effective in preventing or reducing the severe complications of spasticity. CONCLUSIONS: Botulinum toxin type A is very effective in the treatment of spasticity. These guidelines offer the well-documented experience gained from its use and our knowledge about its indications, effects and safety in clinical practice.

[Cerebral creatine transporter deficiency: an infradiagnosed neurometabolic disease]. / Deficiencia del transportador de creatina cerebral: una enfermedad neurometabolica infradiagnosticada.

INTRODUCTION: Brain creatine deficiencies are a group of inborn errors of metabolism recently recognized which are caused by arginine: glycine amidinotransferase (AGAT) deficiency, guanidinoacetate metiltransferase (GAMT) deficiency and defects in creatine transporter (CRTR). Although all of them are characterized by a brain creatine deficiency, clinical and biochemical features are different. CASE REPORTS: We present a retrospective study about four patients of masculine sex affected of creatine transporter defects who were recently diagnosed in our centre. We describe the clinical presentation features, the different tests that we used in the diagnosis process (brain magnetic resonance spectroscopy, biochemical analysis of guanidinoacetate and creatine/creatinine ratio in urine), evolution aspects and the response to treatment. The most significative clinical feature was developmental delay mainly in expressive speech, they also presented epilepsy (three cases), autism (three cases), hypotonia (one case) and microcephalia (one case). Brain magnetic resonance spectroscopy showed a low (three cases) or an absence (one case) of creatine level. To confirm the defect we studied the creatine uptake in fibroblasts and molecular analysis of the SLC6A8/creatine transporter gene. Patients with creatine transporter deficiency are being treated with arginine, because a lack of response to creatine. CONCLUSION: Cerebral creatine transporter deficiency can present with different neurological symptoms but developmental and language delay and epilepsy are the most significative; diagnosis is easy and there are some therapeutical options.

Deficiencia del transportador de creatina cerebral: una enfermedad neurometabólica infradiagnosticada / Cerebral creatine transporter deficiency: an infradiagnosed neurometabolic disease

Introducción. Las deficiencias de creatina cerebral constituyen un grupo de errores congénitos del metabolismo que se ha conocido recientemente e incluye las deficiencias de guanidinoacetato metiltransferasa (GAMT), de arginina-glicina amidinotransferasa (AGAT) y del transportador de creatina (CRTR). Aunque todos ellos se caracterizan por un déficit de creatina en el cerebro, las manifestaciones clínicas y bioquímicas son distintas. Casos clínicos. Presentamos un estudio retrospectivo de cuatro pacientes de sexo masculino con defectos del transportador de creatina diagnosticados en nuestro centro recientemente, para analizar la forma de presentación clínica, las pruebas complementarias utilizadas para su diagnóstico (resonancia magnética con espectroscopia), valoración de guanidinoacetato y relación creatina/creatinina en orina), los aspectos evolutivos y la respuesta al tratamiento. El hallazgo más significativo en estos pacientes fue el retraso del desarrollo, principalmente en el lenguaje y el retraso mental. Presentaron, además, epilepsia (tres casos), autismo (tres casos), hipotonía (un caso) y microcefalia (un caso). La resonancia magnética con espectroscopia mostró un descenso (en tres casos) o ausencia (en un caso) del pico de creatina. Se confirmó el defecto mediante un estudio de incorporación de creatina en fibroblastos y estudios moleculares del gen SLC6A8. Los pacientes con defectos del transportador están siendo tratados con arginina, dada la escasa respuesta a la creatina. Conclusión. Los defectos del transportador de creatina pueden presentarse de formas diferentes, pero predominan el retraso del desarrollo y del lenguaje y la epilepsia; su diagnóstico es sencillo y existen opciones terapéuticas

Introduction. Brain creatine deficiencies are a group of inborn errors of metabolism recently recognized which are caused by arginine: glycine amidinotransferase (AGAT) deficiency, guanidinoacetate metiltransferase (GAMT) deficiency and defects in creatine transporter (CRTR). Although all of them are characterized by a brain creatine deficiency, clinical and biochemical features are different. Case reports.We present a retrospective study about four patients of masculine sex affected of creatine transporter defects who were recently diagnosed in our centre. We describe the clinical presentation features, the different tests that we used in the diagnosis process (brain magnetic resonance spectroscopy, biochemical analysis of guanidinoacetate and creatine/creatinine ratio in urine), evolution aspects and the response to treatment. The most significative clinical feature was developmental delay mainly in expressive speech, they also presented epilepsy (three cases), autism (three cases), hypotonia (one case) and microcephalia (one case). Brain magnetic resonance spectroscopy showed a low (three cases) or an absence (one case) of creatine level. To confirm the defect we studied the creatine uptake in fibroblasts and molecular analysis of the SLC6A8/creatine transporter gene. Patients with creatine transporter deficiency are being treated with arginine, because a lack of response to creatine. Conclusion. Cerebral creatine transporter deficiency can present with different neurological symptoms but developmental and language delay and epilepsy are the most significative; diagnosis is easy and there are some therapeutical options