Expression in CHO cells of a bacterial biosynthetic pathway producing a small non-ribosomal peptide aldehyde prevents proteolysis of recombinant proteins.

A significant problem during recombinant protein production is proteolysis. One of the most common preventive strategies is the addition of protease inhibitors, which has drawbacks, such as their short half-life and high cost, and their limited prevention of extracellular proteolysis. Actinomycetes produce the most commonly used inhibitors, which are non-ribosomal small aldehydic peptides. Previously, an unprecedented biosynthetic route involving a condensation-minus non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPSs) and a tRNA utilizing enzyme (tRUE) was shown to direct the synthesis of one of these inhibitor peptides, livipeptin. Here, we show that expression of the livipeptin biosynthetic pathway encoded by the lvp genes in CHO cells resulted in the production of this metabolite with cysteine protease inhibitory activity, implying that mammalian tRNAs were recruited by the lvp system. CHO cells transiently expressing the biosynthetic pathway produced livipeptin without affecting cell growth or viability. Expression of the lvp system in CHO cells producing two model proteins, secreted alkaline phosphatase (hSeAP) and a monoclonal antibody, resulted in higher specific productivity with reduced proteolysis. We show for the first time that the expression of a bacterial biosynthetic pathway is functional in CHO cells, resulting in the efficient, low-cost synthesis of a protease inhibitor without adverse effects on CHO cells. This expands the field of metabolic engineering of mammalian cells by expressing the overwhelming diversity of actinomycetes biosynthetic pathways and opens a new option for proteolysis inhibition in bioprocess engineering.

Longitudinal anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody immune response in acute and convalescent patients.

Despite global efforts to assess the early response and persistence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in patients infected with or recovered from COVID-19, our understanding of the factors affecting its dynamics remains limited. This work aimed to evaluate the early and convalescent immunity of outpatients infected with SARS-CoV-2 and to determine the factors that affect the dynamics and persistence of the IgM and IgG antibody response. Seropositivity of volunteers from Mexico City and the State of Mexico, Mexico, was evaluated by ELISA using the recombinant receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein for 90 days, at different time points (1, 15, 45, 60, and 90 days) after molecular diagnosis (RT-qPCR). Gender, age range, body mass index (BMI), comorbidities, and clinical spectrum of disease were analyzed to determine associations with the dynamics of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. On 90 days post-infection, individuals with moderate and asymptomatic disease presented the lowest levels of IgM, while for IgG, at the same time, the highest levels occurred with mild and moderate disease. The IgM and IgG levels were related to the clinical spectrum of disease, BMI, and the presence/absence of comorbidities through regression trees. The results suggest that the dynamics of anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgM and IgG antibodies in outpatients could be influenced by the clinical spectrum of the disease. In addition, the persistence of antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 could be related to the clinical spectrum of the disease, BMI, and the presence/absence of comorbidities.

A Novel Formulation of Asparaginase Encapsulated into Virus-like Particles of Brome Mosaic Virus: In Vitro and In Vivo Evidence.

The interest in plant-derived virus-like particles (pVLPs) for the design of a new generation of nanocarriers is based on their lack of infection for humans, their immunostimulatory properties to fight cancer cells, and their capability to contain and release cargo molecules. Asparaginase (ASNase) is an FDA-approved drug to treat acute lymphoblastic leukemia (LLA); however, it exhibits high immunogenicity which often leads to discontinuation of treatment. In previous work, we encapsulated ASNase into bacteriophage P22-based VLPs through genetic-directed design to form the ASNase-P22 nanobioreactors. In this work, a commercial ASNase was encapsulated into brome mosaic virus-like particles (BMV-VLPs) to form stable ASNase-BMV nanobioreactors. According to our results, we observed that ASNase-BMV nanobioreactors had similar cytotoxicity against MOLT-4 and Reh cells as the commercial drug. In vivo assays showed a higher specific anti-ASNase IgG response in BALB/c mice immunized with ASNase encapsulated into BMV-VLPs compared with those immunized with free ASNase. Nevertheless, we also detected a high and specific IgG response against BMV capsids on both ASNase-filled capsids (ASNase-BMV) and empty BMV capsids. Despite the fact that our in vivo studies showed that the BMV-VLPs stimulate the immune response either empty or with cargo proteins, the specific cytotoxicity against leukemic cells allows us to propose ASNase-BMV as a potential novel formulation for LLA treatment where in vitro and in vivo evidence of functionality is provided.

Mimotope discovery as a tool to design a vaccine against Zika and dengue viruses.

Vaccine development against dengue virus is challenging because of the antibody-dependent enhancement of infection (ADE), which causes severe disease. Consecutive infections by Zika (ZIKV) and/or dengue viruses (DENV), or vaccination can predispose to ADE. Current vaccines and vaccine candidates contain the complete envelope viral protein, with epitopes that can raise antibodies causing ADE. We used the envelope dimer epitope (EDE), which induces neutralizing antibodies that do not elicit ADE, to design a vaccine against both flaviviruses. However, EDE is a discontinuous quaternary epitope that cannot be isolated from the E protein without other epitopes. Utilizing phage display, we selected three peptides that mimic the EDE. Free mimotopes were disordered and did not elicit an immune response. After their display on adeno-associated virus (AAV) capsids (VLP), they recovered their structure and were recognized by an EDE-specific antibody. Characterization by cryo-EM and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay confirmed the correct display of a mimotope on the surface of the AAV VLP and its recognition by the specific antibody. Immunization with the AAV VLP displaying one of the mimotopes induced antibodies that recognized ZIKV and DENV. This work provides the basis for developing a Zika and dengue virus vaccine candidate that will not induce ADE.

Baculovirus-mediated expression of a Helicobacter pylori protein-based multiepitope hybrid gene induces a potent B cell response in mice.

Helicobacter pylori is a gram-negative bacterium that is present in over half of the world's population. The colonization of the stomach́s gastric mucosa by H. pylori is related to the onset of chronic gastritis, peptic ulcer, and cancer. The estimated deaths from gastric cancer caused by this bacterial infection are in the 15,000-150,000 range. Current treatment for controlling the colonization of H. pylori includes the administration of two to four antibiotics and a gastric ATPase proton pump inhibitor. Nevertheless, the bacterium has shown increased resistance to antibiotics. Despite an extensive list of attempts to develop a vaccine, no approved vaccine against H. pylori is available. Recombinant viruses are a novel alternative for the control of primary pathogenic agents. In this work, we employed a baculovirus that carries a Thp1 transgene coding for nine H. pylori epitopes, some from the literature, and others were selected in silico from the sequence of H. pylori proteins (carbonic anhydrase, urease B subunit, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, Lpp20, Cag7, and CagL). We verified the expression of this hybrid multiepitopic protein in HeLa cells. Mice were inoculated with the recombinant baculovirus Bac-Thp1 using various administration routes: intranasal, intragastric, intramuscular, and a combination of intranasal and intragastric. We identified a strong adjuvant-independent IgG-antibody response in the serum of recombinant baculovirus-Thp1 inoculated mice, which was specific for a strain of H. pylori isolated from a human patient. The bacterium-specific IgG-antibodies were present in sera 125 days after the first vaccine administration. Also, H. pylori-specific IgA-antibodies were found in feces at 82 days after the first inoculation. A baculovirus-based vaccine for H. pylori is promising for controlling this pathogen in humans.

A pseudovirus-based platform to measure neutralizing antibodies in Mexico using SARS-CoV-2 as proof-of-concept.

The gold-standard method to evaluate a functional antiviral immune response is to titer neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) against a viral pathogen. This is historically performed using an in vitro assay of virus-mediated infection, which requires BSL-3 facilities. As these are insufficient in Latin American countries, including Mexico, scant information is obtained locally about viral pathogens NAb, using a functional assay. An alternative solution to using a BSL-3 assay with live virus is to use a BSL-2-safe assay with a non-replicative pseudovirus. Pseudoviral particles can be engineered to display a selected pathogen's entry protein on their surface, and to deliver a reporter gene into target cells upon transduction. Here we comprehensively describe the first development of a BSL-2 safe NAbs-measuring functional assay in Mexico, based on the production of pseudotyped lentiviral particles. As proof-of-concept, the assay is based on Nanoluc luciferase-mediated luminescence measurements from target cells transduced with SARS-CoV-2 Spike-pseudotyped lentiviral particles. We applied the optimized assay in a BSL-2 facility to measure NAbs in 65 serum samples, which evidenced the assay with 100% sensitivity, 86.6% specificity and 96% accuracy. Overall, this is the first report of a BSL-2 safe pseudovirus-based functional assay developed in Mexico to measure NAbs, and a cornerstone methodology necessary to measure NAbs with a functional assay in limited resources settings.

Comparable diagnostic accuracy of SARS-CoV-2 Spike RBD and N-specific IgG tests to determine pre-vaccination nation-wide baseline seroprevalence in Mexico.

A major challenge for developing countries during the COVID-19 pandemic is affordable and adequate monitoring of disease progression and population exposure as the primary source relevant epidemiological indicators. Serology testing enables assessing population exposure and to guide vaccination strategies but requires rigorous accuracy validation before population-wide implementation. We adapted a two-step ELISA protocol as a single-step protocol for detection of IgG against the Receptor Binding Domain (RBD) of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and compared its diagnostic accuracy with a commercial immunoassay anti-nucleoprotein IgG. Both methods yielded adequate and comparable diagnostic accuracy after 3 weeks post-symptom onset and were implemented in a nation-wide population based serological survey during August-November 2020. Anti-RBD National seroprevalence was 23.6%, 1.3% lower, but not significantly, than for anti-N. Double positive seroprevalence was 19.7%. Anti-N single-positive seroprevalence was 3.72% and anti-RBD single-positive seroprevalence was 1.98%. Discrepancies in the positivity to either single marker may be due to different kinetics of each antibody marker as well as the heterogeneity of the sampling time in regards to local epidemic waves. Baseline single positivity prevalence will be useful to assess the serological impact of vaccination and natural infection in further serosurveillance efforts.

Effect of sericin, a silk derived protein, on the amplification of Zika virus in insect and mammalian cell cultures.

Sericin, a silk-derived non-immunogenic protein, has been used to improve cell culture performance by increasing viability, cell concentration, and promoting adherence of several cell lines. Here, we hypothesized that the properties of sericin can enhance the amplification of flaviviruses in cell cultures. The propagation of flavivirus is inefficient and limits scientific research. Zika virus (ZIKV) is an important human pathogen that has been widely studied because of its high impact on public health. There is a need to amplify Zika virus both for research and vaccine development. In this work, we show that sericin improves ZIKV amplification in insect (C6/36) and mammalian (Vero) cell cultures, and that it has a cryoprotectant capacity. Supplementation of cell culture media with sericin at 80 µg/mL resulted in a significant increase of 1 log in the concentration of ZIKV infectious particles produced from both cell lines. Furthermore, final virus yields increased between 5 and 10-fold in Vero cells and between 7 and 23-fold in C6/36 cells when sericin was supplemented, compared to control conditions. These results show that sericin is an effective supplement to increase ZIKV production by Vero and C6/36 cells. Additionally, sericin was a suitable cryoprotective agent, and hence an alternative to FBS and DMSO, for the cryopreservation of C6/36 cells but not for Vero cells.

Dengue Virus NS1 Uses Scavenger Receptor B1 as a Cell Receptor in Cultured Cells.

The dengue virus NS1 is a multifunctional protein that forms part of replication complexes. NS1 is also secreted, as a hexamer, to the extracellular milieu. Circulating NS1 has been associated with dengue pathogenesis by several mechanisms. Cell binding and internalization of soluble NS1 result in endothelial hyperpermeability and in the downregulation of the innate immune response. In this work, we report that the HDL scavenger receptor B1 (SRB1) in human hepatic cells and a scavenger receptor B1-like in mosquito C6/36 cells act as cell surface binding receptors for dengue virus NS1. The presence of the SRB1 on the plasma membrane of C6/36 cells, as well as in Huh7 cells, was demonstrated by confocal microscopy. The internalization of NS1 can be efficiently blocked by anti-SRB1 antibodies, and previous incubation of the cells with HDL significantly reduces NS1 internalization. Significant reduction in NS1 internalization was observed in C6/36 cells transfected with siRNAs specific for SRB1. In addition, the transient expression of SRB1 in Vero cells, which lacks the receptor, allows NS1 internalization in these cells. Direct interaction between soluble NS1 and the SRB1 in Huh7 and C6/36 cells was demonstrated in situ by proximity ligation assays and in vitro by surface plasmon resonance. Finally, results are presented indicating that the SRB1 also acts as a cell receptor for Zika virus NS1. These results demonstrate that dengue virus NS1, a bona fide lipoprotein, usurps the HDL receptor for cell entry and offers explanations for the altered serum lipoprotein homeostasis observed in dengue patients. IMPORTANCE Dengue is the most common viral disease transmitted to humans by mosquitoes. The dengue virus NS1 is a multifunctional glycoprotein necessary for viral replication. NS1 is also secreted as a hexameric lipoprotein and circulates in high concentrations in the sera of patients. Circulating NS1 has been associated with dengue pathogenesis by several mechanisms, including favoring of virus replication in hepatocytes and dendritic cells and disruption of the endothelial glycocalyx leading to hyperpermeability. Those last actions require NS1 internalization. Here, we identify the scavenger cell receptor B1, as the cell-binding receptor for dengue and Zika virus NS1, in cultured liver and in mosquito cells. The results indicate that flavivirus NS1, a bona fide lipoprotein, usurps the human HDL receptor and may offer explanations for the alterations in serum lipoprotein homeostasis observed in dengue patients.

Flavivirus vaccines: Virus-like particles and single-round infectious particles as promising alternatives.

The genus flavivirus of the Flaviridae family includes several human pathogens, like dengue, Zika, Japanese encephalitis, and yellow fever virus. These viruses continue to be a significant threat to human health. Vaccination remains the most useful approach to reduce the impact of flavivirus fever. However, currently available vaccines can induce severe side effects or have low effectiveness. An alternative is the use of recombinant vaccines, of which virus-like particles (VLP) and single-round infectious particles (SRIP) are of especial interest. VLP consist of the virus structural proteins produced in a heterologous system that self-assemble in a structure almost identical to the native virus. They are highly immunogenic and have been effective vaccines for other viruses for over 30 years. SRIP are promising vaccine candidates, as they induce both cellular and humoral responses, as viral proteins are expressed. Here, the state of the art to produce both types of particles and their use as vaccines against flaviviruses are discussed. We summarize the different approaches used for the design and production of flavivirus VLP and SRIP, the evidence for their safety and efficacy, and the main challenges for their use as commercial vaccines.

A novel method for the in vitro assembly of virus-like particles and multimeric proteins.

OBJECTIVE: To develop a method for the efficient assembly of viral or multimeric proteins into virus-like particles (VLP) or other macro structures. RESULTS: Protein monomers were assembled by eliminating calcium ions through precipitation. The model protein, rotavirus VP6, assembled into stable, long nanotubes with better quality than the assemblies obtained directly from cell culture. Nanotube length was directly proportional to the initial concentration of VP6 monomers, in accordance with the classic nucleation theory of capsid assembly. The quality of the obtained assemblies was confirmed when the nanotubes were functionalized with metals, yielding unique nanobiomaterials. Assembly efficiency was improved in comparison with other previously proposed methods. CONCLUSIONS: The novel method presented here is simpler and faster than other reported methods for the assembly and disassembly of viral proteins, a step needed for most applications.

Glycobiotechnology of the Insect Cell-Baculovirus Expression System Technology.

The insect cell-baculovirus expression system technology (BEST) has a prominent role in producing recombinant proteins to be used as research and diagnostic reagents and vaccines. The glycosylation profile of proteins produced by the BEST is composed predominantly of terminal mannose glycans, and, in Trichoplusia ni cell lines, core α3 fucosylation, a profile different to that in mammals. Insects contain all the enzymatic activities needed for complex N- and O-glycosylation and sialylation, although few reports of complex glycosylation and sialylation by the BEST exist. The insect cell line and culture conditions determine the glycosylation profile of proteins produced by the BEST. The promoter used, dissolved oxygen tension, presence of sugar precursors, bovine serum or hemolymph, temperature, and the time of harvest all influence glycosylation, although more research is needed. The lack of activity of glycosylation enzymes possibly results from the transcription regulation and stress imposed by baculovirus infection. To solve this limitation, the glycosylation pathway of insect cells has been engineered to produce complex sialylated glycans and to eliminate α3 fucosylation, either by generating transgenic cell lines or by using baculovirus vectors. These strategies have been successful. Complex glycosylation, sialylation, and inhibition of α3 fucosylation have been achieved, although the majority of glycans still have terminal mannose residues. The implication of insect glycosylation in the proteins produced by the BEST is discussed. Graphical Abstract.

Overexpression of the mitochondrial pyruvate carrier reduces lactate production and increases recombinant protein productivity in CHO cells.

Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are characterized by a low glucose catabolic efficiency, resulting in undesirable lactate production. Here, it is hypothesized that such low efficiency is determined by the transport of pyruvate into the mitochondria. The mitochondrial pyruvate carrier (MPC), responsible for introducing pyruvate into the mitochondria, is formed by two subunits, MPC1 and MPC2. Stable CHO cell lines, overexpressing the genes of both subunits, were constructed to facilitate the entry of pyruvate into the mitochondria and its incorporation into oxidative pathways. Significant overexpression of both genes, compared to the basal level of the control cells, was verified, and subcellular localization of both subunits in the mitochondria was confirmed. Kinetic evaluation of the best MPC overexpressing CHO cells showed a reduction of up to 50% in the overall yield of lactate production with respect to the control. An increase in specific growth rate and maximum viable cell concentration, as well as an increase of up to 40% on the maximum concentration of two recombinant model proteins transiently expressed (alkaline phosphatase or a monoclonal antibody), was also observed. Hybrid cybernetic modeling, that considered 89 reactions, 25 extracellular metabolites, and a network of 62 intracellular metabolites, explained that the best MPC overexpression case resulted in an increased metabolic flux across the mitochondrial membrane, activated a more balanced growth, and reduced the Warburg effect without compromising glucose consumption rate and maximum cell concentration. Overall, this study showed that transport of pyruvate into the mitochondria limits the efficiency of glucose oxidation, which can be overcome by a cell engineering approach.

Dynamic Modeling of CHO Cell Metabolism Using the Hybrid Cybernetic Approach With a Novel Elementary Mode Analysis Strategy.

Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell culture has a major importance on the production of biopharmaceuticals, including recombinant therapeutic proteins such as monoclonal antibodies (MAb). Mathematical modeling of biological systems can successfully assess metabolism complexity while providing logical and systematic methods for relevant genetic target and culture parameter identification toward cell growth and productivity improvements. Most modeling approaches on CHO cells have been performed under stationary constraints, and only a few dynamic models have been presented on simplified reaction sets, due to substantial overparameterization problems. The hybrid cybernetic modeling (HCM) approach has been recently used to describe the dynamic behavior by incorporating regulation between different metabolic states by elementary mode participation control, with sets of equations evaluated by objective functions. However, as metabolic networks evaluated are constructed toward a genomic scale, and cell compartmentalization is considered, identification of the active set becomes more difficult as EM number exponentially grows. Thus, the development of robust approaches for EM active set selection and analysis with smaller computational requirements is required to impulse the use of cybernetic modeling on larger up to genome-scale networks. In this report, a novel elementary mode selection strategy, based on a polar representation of the convex solution space is presented and coupled to a cybernetic approach to model the dynamic physiologic and metabolic behavior of CHO-S cell cultures. The proposed Polar Space Yield Analysis (PSYA) was compared to other reported elementary mode selection approaches derived from Common Metabolic Objective Analysis (CMOA) used in Flux Balance Analysis (FBA), Yield Space Analysis (YSA), and Lumped Yield Space Analysis (LYSA). For this purpose, exponential growth phase dynamic metabolic models were calculated using kinetic rate equations based on previously modeled growth parameters. Finally, complete culture dynamic metabolic flux models were constructed using the HCM approach with selected elementary mode sets. The yield space elementary mode- and the polar space elementary mode- hybrid cybernetic models presented the best fits and performances. Also, a flux reaction perturbation prediction approach based on the polar yield solution space resulted useful for metabolic network flux distribution capability analysis and identification of potential genetic modifications targets.

Understanding cellular interactions with nanomaterials: towards a rational design of medical nanodevices.

Biomedical applications increasingly require fully characterized new nanomaterials. There is strong evidence showing that nanomaterials not only interact with cells passively but also actively, mediating essential molecular processes for the regulation of cellular functions, but we are only starting to understand the mechanisms of those interactions. Systematic studies about cell behavior as a response to specific nanoparticle properties are scarce in the literature even when they are necessary for the rational design of medical nanodevices. Information in the literature shows that the physicochemical properties determine the bioactivity, biocompatibility, and safety of nanomaterials. The information available regarding the interaction and responses of cells to nanomaterials has not been analyzed and discussed in a single document. Hence, in this review, we present the latest advances about cellular responses to nanomaterials and integrate the available information into concrete considerations for the development of innovative, efficient, specific and, more importantly, safe biomedical nanodevices. We focus on how physicochemical nanoparticle properties (size, chemical surface, shape, charge, and topography) influence cell behavior in a first attempt to provide a practical guide for designing medical nanodevices, avoiding common experimental omissions that may lead to data misinterpretation. Finally, we emphasize the importance of the systematic study of nano-bio interactions to acquire sufficient reproducible information that allows accurate control of cell behavior based on tuning of nanomaterial properties. This information is useful to guide the design of specific nanodevices and nanomaterials to elicit desired cell responses, like targeting, drug delivery, cell attachment, differentiation, etc, or to avoid undesired side effects.

Defining the multiplicity and time of infection for the production of Zaire Ebola virus-like particles in the insect cell-baculovirus expression system.

The Ebola virus disease is a public health challenge. To date, the only available treatments are medical support or the emergency administration of experimental drugs. The absence of licensed vaccines against Ebola virus impedes the prevention of infection. Vaccines based on recombinant virus-like particles (VLP) are a promising alternative. The Zaire Ebola virus serotype (ZEBOV) is the most aggressive with the highest mortality rates. Production of ZEBOV-VLP has been accomplished in mammalian and insect cells by the recombinant coexpression of three structural proteins, the glycoprotein (GP), the matrix structural protein VP40, and the nucleocapsid protein (NP). However, specific conditions to manipulate protein concentrations and improve assembly into VLP have not been determined to date. Here, we used a design of experiments (DoE) approach to determine the best MOI and TOI for three recombinant baculoviruses: bac-GP, bac-VP40 and bac-NP, each coding for one of the main structural proteins of ZEBOV. We identified two conditions where the simultaneous expression of the three recombinant proteins was observed. Interestingly, a temporal and stoichiometric interplay between the three structural proteins was observed. VP40 was required for the correct assembly of ZEBOV-VLP. High NP concentrations reduced the accumulation of GP, which has been reported to be necessary for inducing a protective immune response. Electron microscopy showed that the ZEBOV-VLP produced were morphologically similar to the native virus micrographs previously reported in the literature. A strategy for producing ZEBOV in insect cells, which consists in using a high MOI of bac-VP40 and bac-GP, and reducing expression of NP, either by delaying infection or reducing the MOI of bac-NP, was the most adequate for the production of VLP.

Secretion of Nonstructural Protein 1 of Dengue Virus from Infected Mosquito Cells: Facts and Speculations.

Dengue virus nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) is a multifunctional glycoprotein. For decades, the notion in the field was that NS1 is secreted exclusively from vertebrate cells and not from mosquito cells. However, recent evidence shows that mosquito cells also secrete NS1 efficiently. In this review, we discuss the evidence for secretion of NS1 of dengue virus, and of other flaviviruses, from mosquito cells, differences between NS1 secreted from mosquito and NS1 secreted from vertebrate cells, and possible roles of soluble NS1 in the insect flavivirus vector.

Gene Therapy for Treatment of Chronic Hyperammonemia in a Rat Model of Hepatic Encephalopathy.

INTRODUCTION AND AIM: Hepatic encephalopathy (HE), caused by hyperammonemia resulting from liver disease, is a spectrum of neuropsychiatric and motor disorders that can lead to death. Existing therapies are deficient and alternative treatments are needed. We have shown that gene therapy with a baculovirus vector containing the glutamine synthetase (Bac-GS) gene is efficient for reducing ammonia levels in an acute hyperammonemia rat model. However, the most common condition resulting from liver disease is chronic hyperammonemia. In this work, Bac-GS was evaluated in bile-duct ligated rats, a chronic liver disease model with hyperammonemia and some characteristics of Type C HE. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Bac-GS was tested for mediating GS overexpression in HeLa cells and H9C2 myotubes. For determining the utility of Bac-GS for the reduction of ammonia levels in a chronic hyperammonemia animal model, four groups of rats were treated: control, sham, ligated with Bac-GS and ligated with Bac-GFP. Baculoviruses were injected i.m. 18 days post-surgery. Blood was drawn 2, 3 and 4 weeks post-surgery and plasma ammonia concentrations were quantified. RESULTS: In protein lysates of cells and myotubes transduced with Bac-GS, a 44 kDa band corresponding to GS was detected. Significant results were obtained in the hyperammonemic bile-duct ligated rat model, as plasma ammonia was reduced to normal levels 3 days after treatment with Bac-GS. Furthermore, a transitory effect of Bac-GS was observed. CONCLUSION: Our results show that gene therapy by delivering GS is a promising alternative for treatment of hyperammonemia in acute-on-chronic liver failure patients with HE.