Valley interference and spin exchange at the atomic scale in silicon.

Tunneling is a fundamental quantum process with no classical equivalent, which can compete with Coulomb interactions to give rise to complex phenomena. Phosphorus dopants in silicon can be placed with atomic precision to address the different regimes arising from this competition. However, they exploit wavefunctions relying on crystal band symmetries, which tunneling interactions are inherently sensitive to. Here we directly image lattice-aperiodic valley interference between coupled atoms in silicon using scanning tunneling microscopy. Our atomistic analysis unveils the role of envelope anisotropy, valley interference and dopant placement on the Heisenberg spin exchange interaction. We find that the exchange can become immune to valley interference by engineering in-plane dopant placement along specific crystallographic directions. A vacuum-like behaviour is recovered, where the exchange is maximised to the overlap between the donor orbitals, and pair-to-pair variations limited to a factor of less than 10 considering the accuracy in dopant positioning. This robustness remains over a large range of distances, from the strongly Coulomb interacting regime relevant for high-fidelity quantum computation to strongly coupled donor arrays of interest for quantum simulation in silicon.

Thermodynamic insight into stimuli-responsive behaviour of soft porous crystals.

Knowledge of the thermodynamic potential in terms of the independent variables allows to characterize the macroscopic state of the system. However, in practice, it is difficult to access this potential experimentally due to irreversible transitions that occur between equilibrium states. A showcase example of sudden transitions between (meta)stable equilibrium states is observed for soft porous crystals possessing a network with long-range structural order, which can transform between various states upon external stimuli such as pressure, temperature and guest adsorption. Such phase transformations are typically characterized by large volume changes and may be followed experimentally by monitoring the volume change in terms of certain external triggers. Herein, we present a generalized thermodynamic approach to construct the underlying Helmholtz free energy as a function of the state variables that governs the observed behaviour based on microscopic simulations. This concept allows a unique identification of the conditions under which a material becomes flexible.

Metal-organic and covalent organic frameworks as single-site catalysts.

Heterogeneous single-site catalysts consist of isolated, well-defined, active sites that are spatially separated in a given solid and, ideally, structurally identical. In this review, the potential of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) and covalent organic frameworks (COFs) as platforms for the development of heterogeneous single-site catalysts is reviewed thoroughly. In the first part of this article, synthetic strategies and progress in the implementation of such sites in these two classes of materials are discussed. Because these solids are excellent playgrounds to allow a better understanding of catalytic functions, we highlight the most important recent advances in the modelling and spectroscopic characterization of single-site catalysts based on these materials. Finally, we discuss the potential of MOFs as materials in which several single-site catalytic functions can be combined within one framework along with their potential as powerful enzyme-mimicking materials. The review is wrapped up with our personal vision on future research directions.

Dynamics of a single-atom electron pump.

Single-electron pumps based on isolated impurity atoms have recently been experimentally demonstrated. In these devices the Coulomb potential of an atom creates a localised electron state with a large charging energy and considerable orbital level spacings, enabling robust charge capturing processes. In contrast to the frequently used gate-defined quantum dot pumps, which experience a strongly time-dependent potential, the confinement potential in these single-atom pumps is hardly affected by the periodic driving of the system. Here we describe the behaviour and performance of an atomic, single parameter, electron pump. This is done by considering the loading, isolating and unloading of one electron at the time, on a phosphorous atom embedded in a silicon double gate transistor. The most important feature of the atom pump is its very isolated ground state, which is populated through the fast loading of much higher lying excited states and a subsequent fast relaxation process. This leads to a substantial increase in pumping accuracy, and is opposed to the adverse role of excited states observed for quantum dot pumps due to non-adiabatic excitations. The pumping performance is investigated as a function of dopant position, revealing a pumping behaviour robust against the expected variability in atomic position.

Spatial metrology of dopants in silicon with exact lattice site precision.

Scaling of Si-based nanoelectronics has reached the regime where device function is affected not only by the presence of individual dopants, but also by their positions in the crystal. Determination of the precise dopant location is an unsolved problem in applications from channel doping in ultrascaled transistors to quantum information processing. Here, we establish a metrology combining low-temperature scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM) imaging and a comprehensive quantum treatment of the dopant-STM system to pinpoint the exact coordinates of the dopant in the Si crystal. The technique is underpinned by the observation that STM images contain atomic-sized features in ordered patterns that are highly sensitive to the STM tip orbital and the absolute dopant lattice site. The demonstrated ability to determine the locations of P and As dopants to 5 nm depths will provide critical information for the design and optimization of nanoscale devices for classical and quantum computing applications.

Quantum simulation of the Hubbard model with dopant atoms in silicon.

In quantum simulation, many-body phenomena are probed in controllable quantum systems. Recently, simulation of Bose-Hubbard Hamiltonians using cold atoms revealed previously hidden local correlations. However, fermionic many-body Hubbard phenomena such as unconventional superconductivity and spin liquids are more difficult to simulate using cold atoms. To date the required single-site measurements and cooling remain problematic, while only ensemble measurements have been achieved. Here we simulate a two-site Hubbard Hamiltonian at low effective temperatures with single-site resolution using subsurface dopants in silicon. We measure quasi-particle tunnelling maps of spin-resolved states with atomic resolution, finding interference processes from which the entanglement entropy and Hubbard interactions are quantified. Entanglement, determined by spin and orbital degrees of freedom, increases with increasing valence bond length. We find separation-tunable Hubbard interaction strengths that are suitable for simulating strongly correlated phenomena in larger arrays of dopants, establishing dopants as a platform for quantum simulation of the Hubbard model.

Plasmodium falciparum malaria occurring four years after leaving an endemic area.

We present a case of a 52-year-old woman of Ghanaian origin who developed Plasmodium falciparum malaria 4 years after leaving Africa. She had not returned to an endemic area since. We hypothesize several possible scenarios to explain this infection, of which we believe recrudescence of P. falciparum is the most plausible. This occurred most likely as a consequence of waning immunity several years after leaving a high-transmission area. She recovered after a 3-day treatment with atovaquone/proguanil.

Exploring the Flexibility of MIL-47(V)-Type Materials Using Force Field Molecular Dynamics Simulations.

The flexibility of three MIL-47(V)-type materials (MIL-47, COMOC-2, and COMOC-3) has been explored by constructing the pressure versus volume and free energy versus volume profiles at various temperatures ranging from 100 to 400 K. This is done with first-principles-based force fields using the recently proposed QuickFF parametrization protocol. Specific terms were added for the materials at hand to describe the asymmetry of the one-dimensional vanadium-oxide chain and to account for the flexibility of the organic linkers. The force fields are used in a series of molecular dynamics simulations at fixed volumes but varying unit cell shapes. The three materials show a distinct pressure-volume behavior, which underlines the ability to tune the mechanical properties by varying the linkers toward different applications such as nanosprings, dampers, and shock absorbers.

A Comparison of Barostats for the Mechanical Characterization of Metal-Organic Frameworks.

In this paper, three barostat coupling schemes for pressure control, which are commonly used in molecular dynamics simulations, are critically compared to characterize the rigid MOF-5 and flexible MIL-53(Al) metal-organic frameworks. We investigate the performance of the three barostats, the Berendsen, the Martyna-Tuckerman-Tobias-Klein (MTTK), and the Langevin coupling methods, in reproducing the cell parameters and the pressure versus volume behavior in isothermal-isobaric simulations. A thermodynamic integration method is used to construct the free energy profiles as a function of volume at finite temperature. It is observed that the aforementioned static properties are well-reproduced with the three barostats. However, for static properties depending nonlinearly on the pressure, the Berendsen barostat might give deviating results as it suppresses pressure fluctuations more drastically. Finally, dynamic properties, which are directly related to the fluctuations of the cell, such as the time to transition from the large-pore to the closed-pore phase, cannot be well-reproduced by any of the coupling schemes.

Radio frequency measurements of tunnel couplings and singlet-triplet spin states in Si:P quantum dots.

Spin states of the electrons and nuclei of phosphorus donors in silicon are strong candidates for quantum information processing applications given their excellent coherence times. Designing a scalable donor-based quantum computer will require both knowledge of the relationship between device geometry and electron tunnel couplings, and a spin readout strategy that uses minimal physical space in the device. Here we use radio frequency reflectometry to measure singlet-triplet states of a few-donor Si:P double quantum dot and demonstrate that the exchange energy can be tuned by at least two orders of magnitude, from 20 µeV to 8 meV. We measure dot-lead tunnel rates by analysis of the reflected signal and show that they change from 100 MHz to 22 GHz as the number of electrons on a quantum dot is increased from 1 to 4. These techniques present an approach for characterizing, operating and engineering scalable qubit devices based on donors in silicon.

Spatially resolved resonant tunneling on single atoms in silicon.

The ability to control single dopants in solid-state devices has opened the way towards reliable quantum computation schemes. In this perspective it is essential to understand the impact of interfaces and electric fields, inherent to address coherent electronic manipulation, on the dopants atomic scale properties. This requires both fine energetic and spatial resolution of the energy spectrum and wave-function, respectively. Here we present an experiment fulfilling both conditions: we perform transport on single donors in silicon close to a vacuum interface using a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) in the single electron tunneling regime. The spatial degrees of freedom of the STM tip provide a versatility allowing a unique understanding of electrostatics. We obtain the absolute energy scale from the thermal broadening of the resonant peaks, allowing us to deduce the charging energies of the donors. Finally we use a rate equations model to derive the current in presence of an excited state, highlighting the benefits of the highly tunable vacuum tunnel rates which should be exploited in further experiments. This work provides a general framework to investigate dopant-based systems at the atomic scale.

Cutaneous infection by Alternaria infectoria in a liver transplant recipient: a case report.

We report the case of a 65-year-old man who developed multiple crusty ulcerative skin lesions on both lower extremities six months after liver transplantation. The causative pathogen was identified as Alternaria Infectoria, an opportunistic fungal agent. The patient was successfully treated with fluconazole for 27 weeks, with complete regression of the lesions. Due to the lack of well-designed clinical studies it is difficult to determine the best treatment course regarding solid organ transplant recipients presenting with invasive fungal infections. And for now, the clinician must lean upon case-reports or retrospective analyses to compose the most suited therapy for his patient. Based upon literature, it seems that the combination of a broad spectrum azole and reducing the dose of immunosuppressive drugs is the cornerstone of treating invasive fungal infections in solid organ transplant patients.

Spatially resolving valley quantum interference of a donor in silicon.

Electron and nuclear spins of donor ensembles in isotopically pure silicon experience a vacuum-like environment, giving them extraordinary coherence. However, in contrast to a real vacuum, electrons in silicon occupy quantum superpositions of valleys in momentum space. Addressable single-qubit and two-qubit operations in silicon require that qubits are placed near interfaces, modifying the valley degrees of freedom associated with these quantum superpositions and strongly influencing qubit relaxation and exchange processes. Yet to date, spectroscopic measurements have only probed wavefunctions indirectly, preventing direct experimental access to valley population, donor position and environment. Here we directly probe the probability density of single quantum states of individual subsurface donors, in real space and reciprocal space, using scanning tunnelling spectroscopy. We directly observe quantum mechanical valley interference patterns associated with linear superpositions of valleys in the donor ground state. The valley population is found to be within 5% of a bulk donor when 2.85 ± 0.45 nm from the interface, indicating that valley-perturbation-induced enhancement of spin relaxation will be negligible for depths greater than 3 nm. The observed valley interference will render two-qubit exchange gates sensitive to atomic-scale variations in positions of subsurface donors. Moreover, these results will also be of interest for emerging schemes proposing to encode information directly in valley polarization.

Wave function control over a single donor atom.

Single donor atoms in semiconductor nanostructures are attractive basic components for quantum device applications. In this work, we demonstrate the ability to manipulate the wave function of a single donor electron with an electric field. The deformation of the wave function is probed by the tunnel current which, furthermore, allows for the determination of the location of the atom in the device. This experiment demonstrates the control necessary for the utilization of single donors in quantum electronics.

Magnetic-field probing of an SU(4) Kondo resonance in a single-atom transistor.

Semiconductor devices have been scaled to the point that transport can be dominated by only a single dopant atom. As a result, in a Si fin-type field effect transistor Kondo physics can govern transport when one electron is bound to the single dopant. Orbital (valley) degrees of freedom, apart from the standard spin, strongly modify the Kondo effect in such systems. Owing to the small size and the s-like orbital symmetry of the ground state of the dopant, these orbital degrees of freedom do not couple to external magnetic fields which allows us to tune the symmetry of the Kondo effect. Here we study this tunable Kondo effect and demonstrate experimentally a symmetry crossover from an SU(4) ground state to a pure orbital SU(2) ground state as a function of magnetic field. Our claim is supported by theoretical calculations that unambiguously show that the SU(2) symmetric case corresponds to a pure valley Kondo effect of fully polarized electrons.

Lifetime-enhanced transport in silicon due to spin and valley blockade.

We report the observation of lifetime-enhanced transport (LET) based on perpendicular valleys in silicon by transport spectroscopy measurements of a two-electron system in a silicon transistor. The LET is manifested as a peculiar current step in the stability diagram due to a forbidden transition between an excited state and any of the lower energy states due to perpendicular valley (and spin) configurations, offering an additional current path. By employing a detailed temperature dependence study in combination with a rate equation model, we estimate the lifetime of this particular state to exceed 48 ns. The two-electron spin-valley configurations of all relevant confined quantum states in our device were obtained by a large-scale atomistic tight-binding simulation. The LET acts as a signature of the complicated valley physics in silicon: a feature that becomes increasingly important in silicon quantum devices.

Single-electron capacitance spectroscopy of individual dopants in silicon.

Motivated by recent transport experiments and proposed atomic-scale semiconductor devices, we present measurements that extend the reach of scanned-probe methods to discern the properties of individual dopants tens of nanometers below the surface of a silicon sample. Using a capacitance-based approach, we have both spatially resolved individual subsurface boron acceptors and detected spectroscopically single holes entering and leaving these minute systems of atoms. A resonance identified as the B+ state is shown to shift in energy from acceptor to acceptor. We examine this behavior with respect to nearest-neighbor distances. By directly measuring the quantum levels and testing the effect of dopant-dopant interactions, this method represents a valuable tool for the development of future atomic-scale semiconductor devices.

Integrated logic circuits using single-atom transistors.

Scaling down the size of computing circuits is about to reach the limitations imposed by the discrete atomic structure of matter. Reducing the power requirements and thereby dissipation of integrated circuits is also essential. New paradigms are needed to sustain the rate of progress that society has become used to. Single-atom transistors, SATs, cascaded in a circuit are proposed as a promising route that is compatible with existing technology. We demonstrate the use of quantum degrees of freedom to perform logic operations in a complementary-metal-oxide-semiconductor device. Each SAT performs multilevel logic by electrically addressing the electronic states of a dopant atom. A single electron transistor decodes the physical multivalued output into the conventional binary output. A robust scalable circuit of two concatenated full adders is reported, where by utilizing charge and quantum degrees of freedom, the functionality of the transistor is pushed far beyond that of a simple switch.

Compact Mach-Zehnder interferometer based on self-collimation of light in a silicon photonic crystal.

We demonstrate a compact silicon photonic crystal Mach-Zehnder interferometer operating in the self-collimation regime. By tailoring the photonic band structure such as to produce self-collimated beams, it is possible to design beam splitters and mirrors and combine these to a 20 x 20 microm(2) format. With transmission spectroscopy we find a pronounced unidirectional optical output, the output ratio being as high as 25 at the self-collimation wavelength. Furthermore, the self-collimated beams and the unidirectionality are clearly observed in real space using near-field and far-field optical microscopy. Interpretation of the optical data is strongly supported by different types of simulations.

Tunable Kondo effect in a single donor atom.

The Kondo effect has been observed in a single gate-tunable atom. The measurement device consists of a single As dopant incorporated in a silicon nanostructure. The atomic orbitals of the dopant are tunable by the gate electric field. When they are tuned such that the ground state of the atomic system becomes a (nearly) degenerate superposition of two of the silicon valleys, an exotic and hitherto unobserved valley Kondo effect appears. Together with the "regular" spin Kondo, the tunable valley Kondo effect allows for reversible electrical control over the symmetry of the Kondo ground state from an SU(2) to an SU(4) configuration.