Una revisión de las bases neurobiológicas de la dislexia en población adulta / A review of the neurobiological basis of dyslexia in the adult population

Introducción: La dislexia en la edad adulta afecta a alrededor del 4% de la población. Sin embargo, la investigación acerca de los sustratos neurobiológicos de la dislexia en población adulta es relativamente escasa en comparación con la realizada en niños. Objetivo: El presente estudio ofrece una revisión de las bases neurobiológicas de la dislexia en población adulta. Desarrollo. A partir de una búsqueda bibliográfica en la base de datos del Psychological Abstracts: PsycINFO, se identificaron 11 trabajos sobre las bases genéticas, 9 estudios que emplearon técnicas de neuroimagen estructural, 13 artículos que emplearon técnicas neurofuncionales, y 24, neurofisiológicas. Los resultados de la revisión señalan la gran heredabilidad de la dislexia, así como la implicación de diferentes genes. Asimismo, los estudios de neuroimagen muestran diferencias estructurales, funcionales y fisiológicas en regiones temporoparietales y occipitotemporales, y en el giro frontal inferior en los adultos con dislexia. Conclusión: Las investigaciones muestran la gran complejidad etiológica de la dislexia en población adulta. Se destaca la necesidad de realizar estudios neurobiológicos en diferentes lenguas transparentes

Introduction: Adult dyslexia affects about 4% of the population. However, studies on the neurobiological basis of dyslexia in adulthood are scarce compared to paediatric studies. Aim. This review investigates the neurobiological basis of dyslexia in adulthood. Development: Using PsycINFO, a database of psychology abstracts, we identified 11 studies on genetics, 9 neurostructural studies, 13 neurofunctional studies and 24 neurophysiological studies. Results: from the review show that dyslexia is highly heritable and displays polygenic transmission. Likewise, adult neuroimaging studies found structural, functional, and physiological changes in the parieto-occipital and occipito-temporal regions, and in the inferior frontal gyrus, in adults with dyslexia. Conclusion: According to different studies, aetiology in cases of adult dyslexia is complex. We stress the need for neurobiological studies of dyslexia in languages with transparent spelling systems

A review of the neurobiological basis of dyslexia in the adult population. / Una revisión de las bases neurobiológicas de la dislexia en población adulta.

INTRODUCTION: Adult dyslexia affects about 4% of the population. However, studies on the neurobiological basis of dyslexia in adulthood are scarce compared to paediatric studies. AIM: This review investigates the neurobiological basis of dyslexia in adulthood. DEVELOPMENT: Using PsycINFO, a database of psychology abstracts, we identified 11 studies on genetics, 9 neurostructural studies, 13 neurofunctional studies and 24 neurophysiological studies. Results from the review show that dyslexia is highly heritable and displays polygenic transmission. Likewise, adult neuroimaging studies found structural, functional, and physiological changes in the parieto-occipital and occipito-temporal regions, and in the inferior frontal gyrus, in adults with dyslexia. CONCLUSION: According to different studies, aetiology in cases of adult dyslexia is complex. We stress the need for neurobiological studies of dyslexia in languages with transparent spelling systems.

[The application of new technologies to solving maths problems for students with learning disabilities: the 'underwater school']. / Aplicación de nuevas tecnologías con estudiantescon dificultades de aprendizaje en la solución deproblemas matemáticos: la 'escuela submarina'.

INTRODUCTION: Different procedures have demonstrated efficacy to teach cognitive and metacognitive strategies to problem solving in mathematics. Some studies have used computer-based problem solving instructional programs. AIM: To analyze in students with learning disabilities the efficacy of a cognitive strategies training for problem solving, with three instructional delivery formats: a teacher-directed program (T-D), a computer-assisted instructional (CAI) program, and a combined program (T-D + CAI). SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Forty-four children with mathematics learning disabilities, between 8 and 10 years old participated in this study. The children were randomly assigned to one of the three instructional formats and a control group without cognitive strategies training. In the three instructional conditions which were compared all the students learnt problems solving linguistic and visual cognitive strategies trough the self-instructional procedure. Several types of measurements were used for analysing the possible differential efficacy of the three instructional methods implemented: solving problems tests, marks in mathematics, internal achievement responsibility scale, and school behaviours teacher ratings. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Our findings show that the T-D training group and the T-D + CAI group improved significantly on math word problem solving and on marks in Maths from pre- to post-testing. In addition, the results indicated that the students of the T-D + CAI group solved more real-life problems and developed more internal attributions compared to both control and CAI groups. Finally, with regard to school behaviours, improvements in school adjustment and learning problems were observed in the students of the group with a combined instructional format (T-D + CAI).

Aplicación de nuevas tecnologías con estudiantes con dificultades de aprendizaje en la solución de problemas matemáticos: la ‘escuela submarina’ / The application of new technologies to solving maths problems for students with learning disabilities: The Underwater school

Introducción. Diferentes procedimientos basados en desarrollos informáticos han demostrado ser eficaces para enseñar estrategias cognitivas y metacognitivas para la resolución de problemas en matemáticas. Objetivo. Analizar en estudiantes con dificultades de aprendizaje la eficacia del entrenamiento en estrategias cognitivas, con tres formatos instruccionales: programa de instrucción directa del profesor (T-D), instrucción basada en un programa informático (CAI) y programa combinado (T-D + CAI). Sujetos y métodos. 44 niños con dificultades de aprendizaje en las matemáticas, entre 8 y 10 años de edad, fueron asignados al azar a cada uno de los tres formatos de instrucción, así como a un grupo control sin entrenamiento en estrategias cognitivas. En las tres condiciones que se compararon, los estudiantes aprendieron estrategias lingüísticas y visuales para la solución de problemas con autoinstrucciones. Se utilizaron diferentes tipos de medidas para analizar la posible eficacia diferencial de los tres métodos de instrucción implementados: test de solución de problemas, calificaciones en matemáticas, escala de responsabilidad interna del rendimiento y valoración del profesor de las conductas en la escuela. Resultados y conclusiones. El grupo con entrenamiento T-D y el grupo con T-D + CAI mejoraron significativamente en solución de problemas de texto y en sus calificaciones matemáticas de la pre a la postevaluación. Además, los estudiantes del grupo T-D + CAI resolvieron más problemas de la vida diaria y desarrollaron más atribuciones internas en comparación con el grupo control y el grupo CAI. Finalmente, en relación con las conductas en la escuela, se observaron mejoras en el ajuste escolar y en problemas de aprendizaje en los estudiantes del grupo con instrucción combinada (T-D + CAI) (AU)

Introduction. Different procedures have demonstrated efficacy to teach cognitive and metacognitive strategies to problem solving in mathematics. Some studies have used computer-based problem solving instructional programs. Aim. To analyze in students with learning disabilities the efficacy of a cognitive strategies training for problem solving, with three instructional delivery formats: a teacher-directed program (T-D), a computer-assisted instructional (CAI) program, and a combined program (T-D + CAI). Subjects and methods. Forty-four children with mathematics learning disabilities, between 8 and 10 years old participated in this study. The children were randomly assigned to one of the three instructional formats and a control group without cognitive strategies training. In the three instructional conditions which were compared all the students learnt problems solving linguistic and visual cognitive strategies trough the self-instructional procedure. Several types of measurements were used for analysing the possible differential efficacy of the three instructional methods implemented: solving problems tests, marks in mathematics, internal achievement responsibility scale, and school behaviours teacher ratings. Results and conclusions. Our findings show that the T-D training group and the T-D + CAI group improved significantly on math word problem solving and on marks in Maths from pre- to post-testing. In addition, the results indicated that the students of the T-D + CAI group solved more real-life problems and developed more internal attributions compared to both control and CAI groups. Finally, with regard to school behaviours, improvements in school adjustment and learning problems were observed in the students of the group with a combined instructional format (T-D + CAI) (AU)

La morfología flexiva en el trastorno específico del lenguaje y en la deprivación sociocultural / Inflectional morphology in specific language impairment and in sociocultural deprivation

Los niños con trastorno específico del lenguaje (TEL) y los niños procedentes de ambientes desfavorecidos socioculturalmente (DS) experimentan dificultades en la morfología flexiva. Nos propusimos como objetivo general caracterizar las dificultades morfológicas de ambos grupos. Para ello, se han utilizado dos tipos de medidas morfológicas flexivas en tres grupos de sujetos: desarrollo normal del lenguaje, TEL y DS. Las primeras miden la capacidad para aplicar reglas morfológicas inventadas sin carga léxico-semántica específica y no mediatizadas por aprendizajes previos, y las segundas miden los efectos de los aprendizajes morfológicos ambientales. Nuestros resultados señalan que tanto los niños con TEL como los niños DS muestran unas ejecuciones significativamente más bajas que el grupo control en las tareas de morfología real, influenciada por los aprendizajes previos, mientras que en las tareas de morfología sin carga léxicosemántica, sólo el grupo de niños con TEL experimenta dificultades en la aplicación de reglas morfosintácticas. Finalmente, se discuten las implicaciones prácticas de estos hallazgos

Children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI) and children with Sociocultural Deprivation (SD) have difficulties with Inflectional Morphology. The aim of this study is to show the difficulties with morphology that experience these subjects. Three groups of subjects were selected: one with specific language impairment, one tipically developing children and one with sociocultural deprivation. Two measures of inflectional morphology were used that presented different contextual influences: Real inflectional morphology, with contextual influence and no real inflectional morphology, without contextual influence. Our results show that SLI and SD have difficulties with real inflectional morphology tasks, that are influenced by previous learning. In contrast, only SLI have difficulties with no real inflectional morphology. In this way, SLI have difficulties with the application of morphological rules. Finally, we discuss the practical implications of our results

La investigación en dificultades de aprendizaje: un análisis documental / Research into learning disabilities: a documentary analysis

Introduction. Our current understanding of learning disabilities (LD) is essentially limited by their actual definition, the heterogeneity of the samples and the unsuitability of the control groups. Aims. This study offers an overview of the methodological aspects and the areas of research in LD. Development. From a bibliographical search conducted in the Psychological Abstracts database, PsycINFO, we identified and selected the studies the review was to focus on, and this was completed with previous reviews. Quantitative research methods are preferred in 99.7% of cases, whereas the remaining 0.3% opted for qualitative methods. There was in increase in the number of research reviews, as well as longitudinal studies and those aimed at determining the effectiveness of the interventions, with the resulting interest in new techniques for data analysis such as meta-analysis, path analysis and latent growth curves. The research topics that aroused most interest were LD-related problems (16.7%), difficulties in learning to read (15.82%), studies focusing on intervention (10.15%) and diagnostics in LD. Conclusions. The primary objectives of the research appear to be the characterisation of LD and the problems they cause throughout the patient’s life cycle, together with their identification and early treatment. Research is also extended towards other, more practical matters, with a special emphasis on the school setting (AU)

Introducción. Nuestra actual comprensión de las dificultades de aprendizaje (DA) se ve limitada por la propia definición, la heterogeneidad de las muestras y la inadecuación de los grupos de control, fundamentalmente. Objetivo. El presente estudio ofrece una visión general acerca de los aspectos metodológicos y los temas de la investigación en DA. Desarrollo. A partir de una búsqueda bibliográfica en la base de datos del Psychological Abstracts: PsycoINFO, se identifican y seleccionan los trabajos sobre los que se centra la revisión, y se completa con revisiones previas. Los métodos cuantitativos de investigación son los preferidos en el 99,7% de los casos, frente al 0,3% que optan por los métodos cualitativos. Aumentan las revisiones de la investigación, así como las longitudinales y las dirigidas a determinar la eficacia de las intervenciones, con el consiguiente interés por nuevas técnicas de análisis de datos como el metaanálisis, el análisis de vías y las curvas de crecimiento latente. En cuanto a los temas de investigación, son los problemas asociados a las DA (16,7%), las dificultades en el aprendizaje de la lectura (15,82%), los trabajos centrados en la intervención (10,15%) y diagnóstico (8,95%) en DA los que generan mayor interés. Conclusiones. Los objetivos prioritarios de la investigación parecen ser la caracterización de las DA y sus problemas asociados a lo largo del ciclo vital, así como la identificación y tratamiento temprano. También se amplía la investigación hacia temas de orden práctico, centradas en el contexto escolar (AU)

[Research into learning disabilities: a documentary analysis]. / La investigación en dificultades de aprendizaje: un análisis documental

INTRODUCTION: Our current understanding of learning disabilities (LD) is essentially limited by their actual definition, the heterogeneity of the samples and the unsuitability of the control groups. AIMS: This study offers an overview of the methodological aspects and the areas of research in LD. DEVELOPMENT: From a bibliographical search conducted in the Psychological Abstracts database, PsycINFO, we identified and selected the studies the review was to focus on, and this was completed with previous reviews. Quantitative research methods are preferred in 99.7% of cases, whereas the remaining 0.3% opted for qualitative methods. There was in increase in the number of research reviews, as well as longitudinal studies and those aimed at determining the effectiveness of the interventions, with the resulting interest in new techniques for data analysis such as meta-analysis, path analysis and latent growth curves. The research topics that aroused most interest were LD-related problems (16.7%), difficulties in learning to read (15.82%), studies focusing on intervention (10.15%) and diagnostics in LD. CONCLUSIONS: The primary objectives of the research appear to be the characterisation of LD and the problems they cause throughout the patient's life cycle, together with their identification and early treatment. Research is also extended towards other, more practical matters, with a special emphasis on the school setting.

Habilidad narrativa de los niños con trastorno por déficit de atención con hiperactividad / Narrative skills in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

El presente estudio examinó las habilidades de procesamiento cognitivo de los niños con Trastorno por Déficit de Atención con Hiperactividad (TDAH) que están implicadas en la narración de historias. Treinta niños con TDAH y 30 niños normales, equilibrados en edad, inteligencia, reconocimiento de palabras y comprensión lectora, realizaron una tarea de recuerdo de un cuento. Los resultados indican que ambos grupos difieren en la producción de narraciones. Los niños con TDAH no sólo narraron historias de menor organización y coherencia, sino que además cometieron más errores en sus narraciones y, por consiguiente, sus historias resultaron confusas y difíciles de seguir. Así, los déficits observados en la producción de narraciones en los niños con TDAH podrían reflejar deficiencias en los procesos ejecutivos, que afectan a la organización de la información

The present study examined the cognitive processing abilities of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). A story retelling task was used to assess narrative abilities in 30 children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and 30 normally developing children, matched on age, IQ, word retrieval and reading comprehension. Results indicated that the two groups did differ in the production of narratives. The children with ADHD provided stories more poorly organized and less cohesive and contained more inaccuracies. As a result, their stories were often confused and hard to follow. Thus the observed deficits in narrative production in children with ADHD may reflect underlying deficits in executive processes. That may impair organization of information

El valor de la narrativa en la caracterización de los alumnos con dificultades de lenguaje / Narrative value in the characterization of children with language difficulties

Este trabajo investigó la comprensión y la producción de narraciones, que resultan especialmente importantes para el funcionamiento académico y social de los niños. El discurso narrativo de niños con Trastorno Específico del Lenguaje (TEL) fue comparado con el de dos grupos de niños, uno con desarrollo normal y otro con deprivación sociocultural. Los resultados indican que el grupo con TEL difiere del grupo con desarrollo normal del lenguaje en la mayoría de las dimensiones estudiadas, con la excepción de los errores morfológicos, mostrando un claro patrón de dificultades de carácter organizativo; mientras que el grupo con deprivación sociocultural sólo difiere en una dimensión que remite a etapas anteriores en el desarrollo del lenguaje. Por este motivo, el análisis de las habilidades narrativas es un instrumento valioso para detectar las dificultades características de los niños con problemas de lenguaje (AU)

[Educational implications of the cognitive impairment in developmental dyslexia]. / Implicaciones educativas del deficit cognitivo de la dislexia evolutiva.

AIMS: In this study we review the main theories put forward to account for developmental dyslexia, as well as the intervention procedures deriving from these theories that enjoy the most empirical support. DEVELOPMENT: Developmental dyslexia is a complex disorder that reflects cognitive impairment related to neurobiological anomalies, although researchers still do not agree on fundamental aspects regarding its aetiology. There are at present a number of different theories that can be grouped in two antagonistic lines of work. On the one hand, one of them considers that the exclusive and direct cause of dyslexia is a specific cognitive disorder. On the other hand, however, there are several theories that consider the impairments experienced by dyslexic patients to be part of a wide range of tasks and processes that are secondary to an underlying primary deficit. As a consequence of the progress made in the characterisation of dyslexia, an unprecedented effort has been made in recent decades in the development of intervention programmes and in the analysis of their effectiveness. CONCLUSIONS: Research into the explanation for dyslexia finds itself faced with the challenge of determining whether the different cognitive problems identified in dyslexic patients represent different cognitive routes towards the same dyslexic phenotype, whether they correspond to different types of dyslexia or whether they refer to the sum of the problems resulting from different comorbid conditions. Until this issue is resolved, as educators, we must carry out more comprehensive evaluations in order to determine the profile of the difficulties that are experienced in each particular case and to be able to tailor the interventions employed in this enigmatic problem.

Implicaciones educativas del déficit cognitivo de la dislexia evolutiva / Educational implications of the cognitive impairment in developmental dyslexia

Objetivo. En este trabajo se revisan las principales teorías explicativas de la dislexia evolutiva, así como los procedimientos de intervención derivados de dichas teorías que cuentan con mayor apoyo empírico. Desarrollo. La dislexia evolutiva constituye un trastorno complejo que refleja deficiencias cognitivas relacionadas con anomalías neurobiológicas, aunque los investigadores mantienen todavía desacuerdos fundamentales acerca de su etiología. En la actualidad, conviven diferentes teorías que pueden agruparse en dos líneas de trabajo antagonistas. De una parte, la que considera que la dislexia está causada exclusiva y directamente por un déficit cognitivo específico. En el otro lado, aquellas teorías que consideran las deficiencias que experimentan los disléxicos en un amplio abanico de tareas y procesos son secundarias a un déficit primario subyacente. Como consecuencia de los avances en la caracterización de la dislexia, se ha producido en las últimas décadas un esfuerzo, sin precedentes, en el desarrollo de programas de intervención y en el análisis de su efectividad. Conclusiones. La investigación acerca de la explicación de la dislexia se encuentra ante el reto de determinar si los diferentes problemas cognitivos identificados en los disléxicos representan diferentes trayectorias cognitivas hacia un mismo fenotipo disléxico, si se corresponden con diferentes tipos de dislexia o si hacen referencia a la suma de los problemas de diferentes condiciones comórbidas. Hasta que se resuelva esta cuestión, los educadores debemos realizar evaluaciones más comprehensivas, con el fin de determinar el perfil de dificultades que experimenta cada caso concreto y poder individualizar la intervención en este enigmático problema (AU)

Aims. In this study we review the main theories put forward to account for developmental dyslexia, as well as the intervention procedures deriving from these theories that enjoy the most empirical support. Development. Developmental dyslexia is a complex disorder that reflects cognitive impairment related to neurobiological anomalies, although researchers still do not agree on fundamental aspects regarding its aetiology. There are at present a number of different theories that can be grouped in two antagonistic lines of work. On the one hand, one of them considers that the exclusive and direct cause of dyslexia is a specific cognitive disorder. On the other hand, however, there are several theories that consider the impairments experienced by dyslexic patients to be part of a wide range of tasks and processes that are secondary to an underlying primary deficit. As a consequence of the progress made in the characterisation of dyslexia, an unprecedented effort has been made in recent decades in the development of intervention programmes and in the analysis of their effectiveness. Conclusions. Research into the explanation for dyslexia finds itself faced with the challenge of determining whether the different cognitive problems identified in dyslexic patients represent different cognitive routes towards the same dyslexic phenotype, whether they correspond to different types of dyslexia or whether they refer to the sum of the problems resulting from different comorbid conditions. Until this issue is resolved, as educators, we must carry out more comprehensive evaluations in order to determine the profile of the difficulties that are experienced in each particular case and to be able to tailor the interventions employed in this enigmatic problema (AU)

[Neurocognitive treatment for learning disabilities]. / Tratamiento neurocognitivo de las dificultades en el aprendizaje.

The present study examines the viability of an intervention model intended to develop cognitive and metacognitive strategies, by sel-instructional procedures. Furthermore the results of programs that explore the efficiency of this model in the interventions for students with learning disabilities (LD) are discussed. Finally, a number of guidelines for the future research in this area are included, underlining the importance of contextualizing the programs aimed in teaching to thinking.