Atlantic flower-invertebrate interactions: A data set of occurrence and frequency of floral visits.

Encounters between flowers and invertebrates are key events for the functioning of tropical forests. Assessing the structure of networks composed of the interactions between those partners leads to a better understanding of ecosystem functioning and the effects of environmental factors on ecological processes. Gathering such data is, however, costly and time-consuming, especially in the highly diverse tropics. We aimed to provide a comprehensive repository of available flower-invertebrate interaction information for the Atlantic Forest, a South American tropical forest domain. Data were obtained from published works and "gray literature," such as theses and dissertations, as well as self-reports by co-authors. The data set has ~18,000 interaction records forming 482 networks, each containing between one and 1061 interaction links. Each network was sampled for about 200 h or less, with few exceptions. A total of 641 plant genera within 136 different families and 39 orders were reported, with the most abundant and rich families being Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Rubiaceae. Invertebrates interacting with these plants were all arthropods from 10 orders, 129 families, and 581 genera, comprising 2419 morphotypes (including 988 named species). Hymenoptera was the most abundant and diverse order, with at least six times more records than the second-ranked order (Lepidoptera). The complete data set shows Hymenoptera interacting with all plant orders and also shows Diptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Hemiptera to be important nodes. Among plants, Asterales and Fabales had the highest number of interactions. The best sampled environment was forest (~8000 records), followed by pastures and crops. Savanna, grasslands, and urban environments (among others) were also reported, indicating a wide range of approaches dedicated to collecting flower-invertebrate interaction data in the Atlantic Forest domain. Nevertheless, most reported data were from forest understory or lower strata, indicating a knowledge gap about flower-invertebrate interactions at the canopy. Also, access to remote regions remains a limitation, generating sampling bias across the geographical range of the Atlantic Forest. Future studies in these continuous and hard-to-access forested areas will yield important new information regarding the interactions between flowers and invertebrates in the Atlantic Forest. There are no copyright restrictions on the data set. Please cite this data paper if the data are used in publications and teaching events.

CropPol: A dynamic, open and global database on crop pollination.

Seventy five percent of the world's food crops benefit from insect pollination. Hence, there has been increased interest in how global change drivers impact this critical ecosystem service. Because standardized data on crop pollination are rarely available, we are limited in our capacity to understand the variation in pollination benefits to crop yield, as well as to anticipate changes in this service, develop predictions, and inform management actions. Here, we present CropPol, a dynamic, open, and global database on crop pollination. It contains measurements recorded from 202 crop studies, covering 3,394 field observations, 2,552 yield measurements (i.e., berry mass, number of fruits, and fruit density [kg/ha], among others), and 47,752 insect records from 48 commercial crops distributed around the globe. CropPol comprises 32 of the 87 leading global crops and commodities that are pollinator dependent. Malus domestica is the most represented crop (32 studies), followed by Brassica napus (22 studies), Vaccinium corymbosum (13 studies), and Citrullus lanatus (12 studies). The most abundant pollinator guilds recorded are honey bees (34.22% counts), bumblebees (19.19%), flies other than Syrphidae and Bombyliidae (13.18%), other wild bees (13.13%), beetles (10.97%), Syrphidae (4.87%), and Bombyliidae (0.05%). Locations comprise 34 countries distributed among Europe (76 studies), North America (60), Latin America and the Caribbean (29), Asia (20), Oceania (10), and Africa (7). Sampling spans three decades and is concentrated on 2001-2005 (21 studies), 2006-2010 (40), 2011-2015 (88), and 2016-2020 (50). This is the most comprehensive open global data set on measurements of crop flower visitors, crop pollinators and pollination to date, and we encourage researchers to add more datasets to this database in the future. This data set is released for non-commercial use only. Credits should be given to this paper (i.e., proper citation), and the products generated with this database should be shared under the same license terms (CC BY-NC-SA).

Negative impacts of dominance on bee communities: Does the influence of invasive honey bees differ from native bees?

Invasive species can reach high abundances and dominate native environments. One of the most impressive examples of ecological invasions is the spread of the African subspecies of the honey bee throughout the Americas, starting from its introduction in a single locality in Brazil. The invasive honey bee is expected to more negatively impact bee community abundance and diversity than native dominant species, but this has not been tested previously. We developed a comprehensive and systematic bee sampling scheme, using a protocol deploying 11,520 pan traps across regions and crops for three years in Brazil. We found that invasive honey bees are now the single most dominant bee species. Such dominance has not only negative consequences for abundance and species richness of native bees but also for overall bee abundance (i.e., strong "numerical" effects of honey bees). Contrary to expectations, honey bees did not have stronger negative impacts than other native bees achieving similar levels of dominance (i.e., lack of negative "identity" effects of honey bees). These effects were markedly consistent across crop species, seasons and years, and were independent from land-use effects. Dominance could be a proxy of bee community degradation and more generally of the severity of ecological invasions.

Forest and connectivity loss simplify tropical pollination networks.

Mutualistic interactions between plants and pollinators play an essential role in the organization and persistence of biodiversity. The structure of interaction networks mediates the resilience of local communities and ecosystem functioning to environmental changes. Hence, network structure conservation may be more critical for maintaining biodiversity and ecological services than the preservation of isolated species in changing landscapes. Here, we intensively surveyed seven 36 km2 landscapes to empirically investigate the effects of forest loss and landscape configuration on the structure of plant-pollinator networks in understory vegetation of Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Our results indicate that forest loss and isolation affect the structure of the plant-pollinator networks, which were smaller in deforested landscapes, and less specialized as patch isolation increased. Lower nestedness and degree of specialization (H'2) indicated that the remaining plant and bee species tend to be generalists, and many of the expected specialized interactions in the network were already lost. Because generalist species generate a cohesive interaction core in these networks, these simplified networks might be resistant to loss of peripheral species, but may be susceptible to the extinction of the most generalist species. We suggest that such a network pattern is an outcome of landscapes with a few remaining isolated patches of natural habitat. Our results add a new perspective to studies of plant-pollinator networks in fragmented landscapes, showing that those interaction networks might also be used to indicate how changes in natural habitat affect biodiversity and biotic interactions.

Influence of landscape structure on Euglossini composition in open vegetation environments / Influência da estrutura da paisagem na composição de Euglossini em ambientes com vegetação aberta

Abstract The fauna of Euglossini bees is poorly known in savanna regions, making it difficult to understand how these bees use open vegetation environments. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of landscape structure on species abundance and composition of Euglossini bees in naturally heterogeneous savanna landscapes. Nine sites were sampled monthly using six traps with chemical baits. Three aromatic essences (eucalyptol, methyl salicylate and vanillin) were used to attract the Euglossini. Surrounding environmental conditions were measured using three independent variables, calculated in multiple scales: index of local vegetation and two landscape indices (Shannon Diversity and area-weighted shape). We compared the competing hypotheses through model selection based on Second-order Akaike Information Criterion (AICc). The four competing hypothesis were: (1) The local vegetation complexity favors Euglossini bees species richness and/or abundance (local vegetation hypothesis); (2) The proportion of the native vegetation types favors Euglossini bees species richness and/or abundance (habitat amount hypothesis); (3) Higher landscape diversity shall increase species richness of Euglossini bees (landscape heterogeneity hypothesis); (4) More complex landscape configuration shall favor the Euglossini bees richness and/or abundance (landscape heterogeneity hypothesis). We sampled 647 individuals belonging to six species of two distinct genera. Our results support the habitat amount hypothesis since bees’ abundance was strongly related with the proportion of habitat in the surrounding landscape. This may be related to the availability of floral and nesting resources in some types of savanna vegetation.

Resumo A fauna das abelhas da tribo Euglossini é pouco conhecida em regiões de savana, tornando difícil a compreensão de como essas abelhas usam ambientes com vegetação aberta. O objetivo desse estudo foi avaliar a influência da estrutura da paisagem na abundância e composição de espécies de abelhas Euglossini em paisagens naturalmente heterogêneas de savana. Nove locais foram amostrados mensalmente utilizando seis armadilhas com iscas químicas. As essências eucaliptol, salicilato de metila e vanilina foram utilizadas para atrair os machos de Euglossini. As condições ambientais foram medidas usando três variáveis, calculadas em múltiplas escalas: índice de vegetação local e dois índices de paisagem (diversidade de Shannon e o índice de forma ponderado pela área). Através da seleção de modelos baseada no critério de informação de Akaike de segunda ordem (AICc) comparamos as hipóteses alternativas: (1) Vegetação local mais complexa favorece as abelhas Euglossini (hipótese da vegetação local); (2) A proporção dos tipos de vegetação nativas favorece as abelhas Euglossini (hipótese da quantidade habitat); (3) A diversidade da paisagem favorece a riqueza de espécies de abelhas Euglossini (hipótese da heterogeneidade da paisagem); (4) Configuração mais complexa da paisagem favorece a riqueza e/ou abundância de abelhas Euglossini (hipótese da heterogeneidade paisagem). Nós amostramos 647 indivíduos pertencentes a seis espécies de dois gêneros distintos. Nossos resultados apoiam a hipótese de quantidade de habitat já que a abundância das abelhas foi fortemente relacionada com a proporção de habitat nas paisagens circundantes. Esses resultados podem estar relacionados com a disponibilidade de recursos florais e substratos para nidificação em alguns tipos de savana.

Spatial heterogeneity regulates plant-pollinator networks across multiple landscape scales.

Mutualistic plant-pollinator interactions play a key role in biodiversity conservation and ecosystem functioning. In a community, the combination of these interactions can generate emergent properties, e.g., robustness and resilience to disturbances such as fluctuations in populations and extinctions. Given that these systems are hierarchical and complex, environmental changes must have multiple levels of influence. In addition, changes in habitat quality and in the landscape structure are important threats to plants, pollinators and their interactions. However, despite the importance of these phenomena for the understanding of biological systems, as well as for conservation and management strategies, few studies have empirically evaluated these effects at the network level. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the influence of local conditions and landscape structure at multiple scales on the characteristics of plant-pollinator networks. This study was conducted in agri-natural lands in Chapada Diamantina, Bahia, Brazil. Pollinators were collected in 27 sampling units distributed orthogonally along a gradient of proportion of agriculture and landscape diversity. The Akaike information criterion was used to select models that best fit the metrics for network characteristics, comparing four hypotheses represented by a set of a priori candidate models with specific combinations of the proportion of agriculture, the average shape of the landscape elements, the diversity of the landscape and the structure of local vegetation. The results indicate that a reduction of habitat quality and landscape heterogeneity can cause species loss and decrease of networks nestedness. These structural changes can reduce robustness and resilience of plant-pollinator networks what compromises the reproductive success of plants, the maintenance of biodiversity and the pollination service stability. We also discuss the possible explanations for these relationships and the implications for landscape planning in agricultural areas.

A global quantitative synthesis of local and landscape effects on wild bee pollinators in agroecosystems.

Bees provide essential pollination services that are potentially affected both by local farm management and the surrounding landscape. To better understand these different factors, we modelled the relative effects of landscape composition (nesting and floral resources within foraging distances), landscape configuration (patch shape, interpatch connectivity and habitat aggregation) and farm management (organic vs. conventional and local-scale field diversity), and their interactions, on wild bee abundance and richness for 39 crop systems globally. Bee abundance and richness were higher in diversified and organic fields and in landscapes comprising more high-quality habitats; bee richness on conventional fields with low diversity benefited most from high-quality surrounding land cover. Landscape configuration effects were weak. Bee responses varied slightly by biome. Our synthesis reveals that pollinator persistence will depend on both the maintenance of high-quality habitats around farms and on local management practices that may offset impacts of intensive monoculture agriculture.

Connectance of Brazilian social bee: food plant networks is influenced by habitat, but not by latitude, altitude or network size

Several recent studies suggest that the level of generalization (measured as percentage connectance) of plant-pollinator networks has several ecological correlates, e.g. latitude and altitude. Here we report on levels of generalization in 27 two-mode networks of social bees and their food plants in various Brazilian habitats and urban environments. Social bees are generalist foragers and are among the most abundant flower visitors in Brazil. They probably account for 30-50 percent of all plant - flower visitor interactions. Connectance was significantly influenced by habitat. Cerrado forests showed lower connectance than the dry dune habitats, with Atlantic rain forest and urban sites taking intermediate position and arid Caatinga being similar to dunes. This shows that generalization in a plant - flower visitor community can be influenced by habitat even within a group of generalist flower visitors, in our case social bees. We show that the strength of the interactions is not different between Cerrado and semi-arid habitats (dunes and Caatinga) and discuss other explanations for our findings.

Vários estudos recentes mostram que o nível de generalização (medido como porcentagem de conectância) das redes plantas-polinizadores apresentam várias correlações ecológicas, como latitude e longitude. Neste trabalho, apresentamos os níveis de generalização em 27 redes de dois-modos de abelhas sociais e das plantas que lhes servem de alimento em vários habitats e ambientes urbanos brasileiros. As abelhas sociais são forrageiras generalistas e estão entre os visitantes florais mais abundantes no Brasil. Provavelmente, são responsáveis por 30 a 50 por cento de todas as interações entre plantas e visitantes florais. A conectância é significativamente influenciada pelo habitat. Os cerrados apresentaram uma menor conectância do que as dunas, a Mata Atlântica e os ambientes urbanos ocuparam uma posição intermediária, e a caatinga árida apresentou um grau de conectância semelhante às dunas. Isso mostra claramente que a generalização nas comunidades de visitantes florais e plantas pode ser influenciada pelo habitat, mesmo em um mesmo grupo de visitantes, como, no nosso caso, as abelhas sociais. Nós provamos que a força das interações não é diferente entre o cerrado e os habitats semi-áridos (dunas e caatinga) e discutimos outras explicações para nossas interpretações.

A community of flower-visiting bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) in the coastal sand dunes of northeastern Brazil

Aspectos da estrutura da comunidade de Apoidea de uma área restrita de dunas com vegetação de restinga em Salvador, Bahia, Brasil, foram analisados. Amostragens, com metodologia padronizada, foram realizadas durante 1 ano, 3 vezes por mês, das 6:00h às 18:00h. Um total de 3983 indivíduos (3770 fêmeas e 213 machos) de 49 espécies, agrupadas em 13 categorias morfo-funcionais, pertencentes a 5 famílias, foram coletados nas flores. Em sua maioria, a fauna de Abaeté é composta por abelhas solitárias de porte grande, cuja maior representatividade, tanto em espécies quanto em indivíduos, é de Anthophoridae, seguida por Apidae; Halictidae; Megachilidae e Colletidae. As abelhas estiveram ativas durante todo o ano, apresentando picos de abundância no período de menor precipitação pluviométrica. A atividade diária foi maior entre 8:00h e 14:00h, compreendendo o período em que a umidade relativa decrescia e a temperatura aumentava. O padrão de abundância e a riqueza foram bastante semelhantes ao de outros habitats no nordeste brasileiro. 49% das espécies amostradas foram representadas por menos de 8 indivíduos e apenas 6 espécies predominaram, representando 84% do total de indivíduos coletados. A disponibilidade de recursos parece ser o principal fator regulador da atividade de vôo das abelhas em Abaeté, ao longo do ano. A atividade de forrageamento foi relacionada positivamente com a intensidade de flores no campo.

Descrição de uma espécie nova de Centris Fabricius da Bahia, Brasil (Hymenoptera, Apoidea) / Description of a new species of Centris Fabricius from Bahia, Brazil (Hymenoptera, Apoidea)

Centris (Centris) pulchra sp. nov. is described and illustrated. The specimens were collected in a restricted area of coastal sand dunes with "restinga" vegetation in northeast of Brazil, near Salvador-BA.