Evaluation of anticoagulant rodenticide sensitivity by examining in vivo and in vitro responses in avian species, focusing on raptors.

Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are used to control pest rodent species but can result in secondary poisoning of non-target animals, especially raptors. In the present study, differences in AR sensitivity among avian species were evaluated by comparing in vivo warfarin pharmacokinetics and effects, measuring cytochrome P450s (CYPs) expression involved in AR metabolism, and conducting in vitro inhibition assays of the AR target enzyme Vitamin K 2,3-epoxide reductase (VKOR). Oral administration of warfarin at 4 mg/kg body weight did not prolong prothrombin time in chickens (Gallus gallus), rock pigeons (Columba livia), or Eastern buzzards (Buteo japonicus). Rock pigeons and buzzards exhibited shorter plasma half-life of warfarin compared to chickens. For the metabolite analysis, 4'-hydroxywarfarin was predominantly detected in all birds, while 10-hydroxywarfarin was only found in pigeons and raptors, indicating interspecific differences in AR metabolism among birds likely due to differential expression of CYP enzymes involved in the metabolism of ARs and variation of VKOR activities among these avian species. The present findings, and results of our earlier investigations, demonstrate pronounced differences in AR sensitivity and pharmacokinetics among bird species, and in particular raptors. While ecological risk assessment and mitigation efforts for ARs have been extensive, AR exposure and adverse effects in predatory and scavenging wildlife continues. Toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic data will assist in such risk assessments and mitigation efforts.

Identification of HSD17B12 as an enzyme catalyzing drug reduction reactions through investigation of nabumetone metabolism.

Nabumetone, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory prodrug, is converted to a pharmacologically active metabolite, 6-methoxy-2-naphthylacetic acid (6-MNA); however, it is 11-fold more efficiently converted to 4-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)butan-2-ol (MNBO) via a reduction reaction in human hepatocytes. The goal of this study was to identify the enzyme(s) responsible for MNBO formation from nabumetone in the human liver. MNBO formation by human liver microsomes (HLM) was 5.7-fold higher than in the liver cytosol. In a panel of 24 individual HLM samples with quantitative proteomics data, the 17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 12 (HSD17B12) protein level had the high correlation coefficient (r = 0.80, P < 0.001) among 4457 proteins quantified in microsomal fractions during MNBO formation. Recombinant HSD17B12 expressed in HEK293T cells exhibited prominent nabumetone reductase activity, and the contribution of HSD17B12 to the activity in the HLM was calculated as almost 100%. MNBO formation in HepG2 and Huh7 cells was significantly decreased by the knockdown of HSD17B12. We also examined the role of HSD17B12 in drug metabolism and found that recombinant HSD17B12 catalyzed the reduction reactions of pentoxifylline and S-warfarin, suggesting that HSD17B12 prefers compounds containing a methyl ketone group on the alkyl chain. In conclusion, our study demonstrated that HSD17B12 is responsible for the formation of MNBO from nabumetone. Together with the evidence for pentoxifylline and S-warfarin reduction, this is the first study to report that HSD17B12, which is known to metabolize endogenous compounds, such as estrone and 3-ketoacyl-CoA, plays a role as a drug-metabolizing enzyme.

Novel Cytochrome P450 2C94 Functionally Metabolizes Diclofenac and Omeprazole in Dogs.

Cytochromes P450 (P450s or CYPs) are important drug-metabolizing enzymes. Because dogs are frequently used in drug metabolism studies, knowledge of dog CYP2C enzymes is essential because in humans these enzymes are abundant and play major roles in liver and intestine. The present study identified and characterized novel dog CYP2C94 along with previously identified dog CYP2C21 and CYP2C41. Dog CYP2C21, CYP2C41, and CYP2C94 cDNAs, respectively, contained open reading frames of 490, 489, and 496 amino acids and shared high-sequence identities (70%, 75%, and 58%) with human CYP2Cs. Dog CYP2C94 mRNA was preferentially expressed in liver, just as dog CYP2C21 and CYP2C41 mRNAs were. In dog liver, CYP2C21 mRNA was the most abundant, followed by CYP2C94 and CYP2C41 mRNAs. Moreover, the hepatic expressions of all three dog CYP2C mRNAs varied in four individual dogs, two of which did not express CYP2C41 mRNA. The three dog CYP2C genes had similar gene structures, and CYP2C94, although located on the same chromosome, was in a genomic region far from the gene cluster containing CYP2C21 and CYP2C41 Metabolic assays with recombinant proteins showed that dog CYP2C94, along with CYP2C21 and CYP2C41, efficiently catalyzed oxidations of diclofenac, warfarin, and/or omeprazole, indicating that dog CYP2C94 is a functional enzyme. Novel dog CYP2C94 is expressed abundantly in liver and encodes a functional enzyme that metabolizes human CYP2C substrates; it is, therefore, likely responsible for drug clearances in dogs. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Novel dog cytochrome P450 2C94 (CYP2C94) was identified and characterized along with dog CYP2C21 and CYP2C41. Dog CYP2C94, isolated from liver, had 58% sequence identity and a close phylogenetic relationship with its human homologs and was expressed in liver at the mRNA level. Dog CYP2C94 (and CYP2C21 and CYP2C41) catalyzed oxidations of diclofenac and omeprazole, human CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 substrates, respectively, but CYP2C41 also hydroxylated warfarin. CYP2C94 is therefore a functional drug-metabolizing enzyme likely responsible for drug clearances in dogs.

Humanized liver TK-NOG mice with functional deletion of hepatic murine cytochrome P450s as a model for studying human drug metabolism.

Chimeric TK-NOG mice with a humanized liver (normal Hu-liver) are a unique animal model for predicting drug metabolism in humans. However, residual mouse hepatocytes occasionally prevent the precise evaluation of human drug metabolism. Herein, we developed a novel humanized liver TK-NOG mouse with a conditional knockout of liver-specific cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR cKO Hu-liver). Immunohistochemical analysis revealed only a few POR-expressing cells around the portal vein in POR cKO mouse livers. NADPH-cytochrome c reductase and cytochrome P450 (P450)-mediated drug oxidation activity in liver microsomes from POR cKO mice was negligible. After the intravenous administration of S-warfarin, high circulating and urinary levels of S-7-hydroxywarfarin (a major human metabolite) were observed in POR cKO Hu-liver mice. Notably, the circulating and urinary levels of S-4'-hydroxywarfarin (a major warfarin metabolite in mice) were much lower in POR cKO Hu-liver mice than in normal Hu-liver mice. POR cKO Hu-liver mice with minimal interference from mouse hepatic P450 oxidation activity are a valuable model for predicting human drug metabolism.

Interaction of SOX5 with SOX9 promotes warfarin-induced aortic valve interstitial cell calcification by repressing transcriptional activation of LRP6.

Calcific aortic valve disease (CAVD) is an important health burden due to its increasing prevalence and lack of available approaches. Osteogenic transdifferentiation of aortic valve interstitial cells (AVICs) contributes to valve calcification. SRY-related HMG-box transcription factor 5 (SOX5) is essential for cartilage development. Whether SOX5 is involved in AVIC calcification has not been determined. This study aimed to explore the role of SOX5 in warfarin-induced AVIC calcification. Immunostaining showed decreased SOX5 in human calcific AV and warfarin induced mouse calcific AV tissues compared with human noncalcific AV and control mouse AV tissues. In calcific human AVICs (hAVICs) and porcine AVICS (pAVICs), both knockdown and overexpression of SOX5 inhibited calcium deposition and osteogenic marker gene expression. Protein expression assays and ChIP assays showed that overexpression of SOX5 led to increased recruitment of SOX5 to the SOX9 promoter and resulted in increased mRNA and protein expression of SOX9. Coimmunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence showed that SOX5 binds to SOX9 with its HMG domain in nucleus. Blue Native PAGE showed overexpression of SOX5 led to multimeric complex formation of SOX5 and resulted in decreased binding of SOX5 to SOX9 similar to the results of knockdown of SOX5. Further ChIP and western blotting assays showed that both knockdown and overexpression of SOX5 resulted in SOX9 initiating transcription of anti-calcific gene LRP6 in warfarin-treated pAVICs. Knockdown of LRP6 rescues the anti-calcification effect of SOX5 overexpression. We found that both loss and gain of function of SOX5 lead to the same phenotype: decreased warfarin induced calcification. The stoichiometry of SOX5 is crucial for cooperation with SOX9, SOX9 nuclear localization and subsequent binding of SOX9 to LRP6 promoter. These results suggest that SOX5 is a potential target for the development of anti-calcification therapy.

Evaluation of microcolumn stability in ultrafast affinity extraction for binding and rate studies.

Ultrafast affinity extraction (UAE) has recently been developed and employed for measuring non-bound (or free) fractions and binding or rate constants for drugs and other targets with soluble binding agents such as serum proteins. This study examined the long-term stability of 10 mm × 2.1 mm i.d. affinity microcolumns when used in UAE at both low and high flow rates (e.g., 0.5 and 3.5 mL/min) over an extended series of injections. This stability was investigated by using immobilized human serum albumin (HSA) and samples containing the drug warfarin with or without soluble HSA as a model system. The free warfarin fractions measured at 0.5 mL/min in the presence of soluble HSA were stable up to 150 injections and changed by <10% at 3.5 mL/min. The association equilibrium constant for warfarin with HSA that was estimated by UAE at 3.5 mL/min had no significant change over 50 injections and a change of only ∼18-22% over 100-150 injections. The dissociation rate constant for warfarin from HSA was found by combining UAE results at 0.5 and 3.5 mL/min and employing a new two-point approach, with no significant changes in this value being seen even after 200 injections. The effects of extended microcolumn use on the retention time, peak width, and peak asymmetry for warfarin, and on the backpressure of the microcolumn, were also considered. These results indicated that UAE and HSA microcolumns could be used to provide consistent values for free solute fractions, binding constants, and rate constants over a large series of injections. These results should be useful in future work by providing guidelines for the assessment, further development, and use of UAE in characterizing interactions involving other drugs and binding agents in solution-based samples.

A physiologically based pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic modeling approach for drug-drug interaction evaluation of warfarin enantiomers with sorafenib.

Sorafenib was suggested to cause drug-drug interaction (DDI) with the common anticoagulant, warfarin based on published studies. The inhibition on CYP2C9 enzyme was thought to be the mechanism, but further studies are warranted. Thus, a mechanistic PBPK/PD model for warfarin enantiomers was developed to predict DDI potential with sorafenib, aiming at providing reference for the rational use of both drugs. PBPK models of warfarin enantiomers were constructed by Simcyp software. A mechanistic PK/PD model was built in NONMEM software. PBPK model of sorafenib was fitted via a top-down method. The final PBPK/PD model of warfarin enantiomers was verified and validated by different dosing regimens, ethnicities and genetic polymorphisms, and used to perform DDI simulations between warfarin racemate and sorafenib among general populations and sub-populations with various CYP2C9 and VKORC1 genotypes. Results suggested low DDI risk between warfarin and sorafenib for general populations. Potentially serious consequence was seen for those carrying both CYP2C9 ∗2 and ∗3 and VKORC1 A/A genotypes. This PBPK/PD modeling approach for warfarin enantiomers enabled DDI evaluation with sorafenib. Close monitoring and warfarin dosage adjustment were recommended for patients carrying mutant genotypes. The novel model could be applied to investigate other drugs that may interact with warfarin.

Massively parallel characterization of CYP2C9 variant enzyme activity and abundance.

CYP2C9 encodes a cytochrome P450 enzyme responsible for metabolizing up to 15% of small molecule drugs, and CYP2C9 variants can alter the safety and efficacy of these therapeutics. In particular, the anti-coagulant warfarin is prescribed to over 15 million people annually and polymorphisms in CYP2C9 can affect individual drug response and lead to an increased risk of hemorrhage. We developed click-seq, a pooled yeast-based activity assay, to test thousands of variants. Using click-seq, we measured the activity of 6,142 missense variants in yeast. We also measured the steady-state cellular abundance of 6,370 missense variants in a human cell line by using variant abundance by massively parallel sequencing (VAMP-seq). These data revealed that almost two-thirds of CYP2C9 variants showed decreased activity and that protein abundance accounted for half of the variation in CYP2C9 function. We also measured activity scores for 319 previously unannotated human variants, many of which may have clinical relevance.

Deciphering Genetic Variants of Warfarin Metabolism in Children With Ventricular Assist Devices.

Warfarin is prescribed in patients with ventricular assist devices (VADs). Dosage depends on several factors including the underlying genotype. These include polymorphisms of genes encoding cytochrome P450 enzymes, the main ones being CYP2C9, VKORC1, and CYP4F2. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the prevalence of CY2CP9 1*2*3*, VKORC1, and CYP4F2 in children with VADs and the time to reach the target international normalized ratio. We performed a retrospective/prospective study in children with VADs. We recorded polymorphisms, disease, type of VAD, ethnicity, age, gender, height, weight, INR values, bleeding, and thromboembolic episodes. Informed consent was obtained. We enrolled 34 children (19 male, 15 female), with a median age of 2 years (range 0.3-17 years) and median weight of 6.9Kg. The Berlin Heart was the most commonly implanted VAD (22/34; 64%), and the most common diagnosis was dilated cardiomyopathy. Statistical analysis confirmed a significant partial correlation with VKORC1 CC (p = 0.019). The CYP2C9*2 CT genotype showed a late rise in target INR values (p = 0.06), while the CYP2C9*2 CC showed a tendency toward an early INR rise (p = 0.024). We provide new information on the contribution of the warfarin polymorphisms in children with VAD implantation. Pharmacogenomic dosing for children using warfarin has the potential to improve clinical care in VAD patients. Patients with the CYP2C9*2 CT genotype may need more time or higher doses to reach target INR, while clinicians may need to be aware of the potential for a rapid rise in INR in patients with the CYP2C9*2 CC genotype.

Effects of acid and lactone forms of statins on S-warfarin 7-hydroxylation catalyzed by human liver microsomes and recombinant CYP2C9 variants (CYP2C9.1 and CYP2C9.3).

The inhibition of CYP2C9-mediated warfarin metabolism by acid or lactone forms of statin converted in the body and effects of CYP2C9 genetic variants on their inhibition are not fully understood. Here, the effects of acid and lactone forms of statins on S-warfarin 7-hydroxylation were investigated in vitro. S-Warfarin 7-hydroxylase activities of human liver microsomes (HLMs), recombinant CYP2C9.1 (rCYP2C9.1), and rCYP2C9.3 (Ile359Leu variant) in the presence of statins were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. Lactone forms of atorvastatin, lovastatin, pitavastatin, pravastatin, rosuvastatin, and simvastatin inhibited the activity of HLMs more potently than the corresponding acid forms, whereas fluvastatin acid showed stronger inhibition than fluvastatin lactone. When the effects of statins on rCYP2C9 variants were examined, inhibition profiles of acid versus lactone forms of statins except for fluvastatin were similar between rCYP2C9.1 and rCYP2C9.3. However, the degrees of inhibition by atorvastatin lactone, fluvastatin acid, fluvastatin lactone, lovastatin lactone, and pitavastatin lactone (Ki values) were significantly different between these variants. These results indicated that lactone forms of statins other than fluvastatin showed more potent inhibition of CYP2C9-catalyzed S-warfarin 7-hydroxylation than the corresponding acid forms. Furthermore, our results indicated that Ile359Leu substitution in CYP2C9 affected the inhibitory potencies of statins.

Binding of warfarin differently affects the thermal behavior and chain packing of anionic, zwitterionic and cationic lipid membranes.

Warfarin is a coumarin derivative drug widely used for its anticoagulant properties. The interaction of warfarin with fully hydrated lipid bilayers has been studied by combining differential scanning calorimetry, spectrophotometry, electron spin resonance of chain-labelled lipids and molecular docking. Bilayers formed by lipids with different chemico-physical properties were considered, namely dimyristoyl-phosphatidylcholine (DMPC), dimyristoyl-phosphatidylglycerol (DMPG), and dioleoyltrimethyl-ammoniumpropane (DOTAP). We observed in all cases the binding of warfarin in proximity of the surface of the bilayers, leading to a variety of distinct effects on key molecular properties of the membranes. The drug associates with the lipid bilayers in the deprotonated open chain form, with an association constant similar for DMPC and DMPG (1.27·104 and 2.82·104 M-1, respectively) and lower for DOTAP (0.46·104 M-1). In DMPC bilayers, which are zwitterionic and with saturated symmetrical chains, warfarin at 10 mol% suppresses the pre-transition, slightly stabilizes the fluid state and reduces the cooperativity of the main transition. Moreover, it alters the lateral packing density of the chain segments close to the polar/apolar interface at any temperature through the gel phase. In anionic DMPG bilayers, the drug slightly perturbs the thermotropic phase behavior, and at 10 mol% markedly loosens the compact gel phase packing of the first chain segments. In cationic DOTAP bilayers, possessing unsaturated acyl chains, the drug induces a slightly higher degree of order and motional restriction in the outer hydrocarbon region in the frozen state. In all cases, as a surface adsorbed molecule, warfarin does not affect the segmental chain order and dynamics for temperatures in the fluid phase. The overall results provide an outline of the action of warfarin on membranes formed by lipids of different types.

Inhibitory effects of sesamin on CYP2C9-dependent 7-hydroxylation of S-warfarin.

A recent report demonstrated that sesamin strongly and non-competitively inhibits S-warfarin 7-hydroxylation activity in human liver microsomes with a Ki value of 0.2 µM. This finding suggests that sesamin predominantly binds to CYP2C9 at another site for which it has a higher affinity than its affinity for the active site, thereby inhibiting the activity of CYP2C9 non-competitively. In this study, we found that sesamin competitively inhibited the 7-hydroxylation activity of S-warfarin in human liver microsomes with a Ki value of 15.7 µM. In addition, the recombinant CYP2C9-dependent 7-hydroxylation activity of S-warfarin was competitively inhibited by sesamin with a Ki value of 13.1 µM. These results are consistent with the fact that sesamin is a good substrate of CYP2C9, and its activity follows Michaelis-Menten kinetics. As the plasma concentration of sesamin after its administration is usually lower than 0.01 µM, the inhibition of S-warfarin metabolism by sesamin does not appear to be severe.

[The Effect of Increased Free Concentrations of Warfarin Due to Protein-binding Substitution in a Combination of Tolvaptan on the PT-INR].

We previously reported that tolvaptan may influence warfarin pharmacodynamics in vivo; however, the mechanism responsible for this influence was not clear. In this study, we investigated the drug-drug interactions between warfarin and tolvaptan by measuring warfarin blood concentrations in 18 patients who received warfarin therapy and in 24 who received warfarin+tolvaptan therapy. The free warfarin concentrations significantly increased in patients who were also receiving oral tolvaptan (p=0.04). In vitro albumin-binding experiments showed that the free warfarin concentrations significantly increased with the addition of tolvaptan, in a dose-dependent manner, through albumin-binding substitution (approximately 2.5 times). Both clinical and in vitro data showed that tolvaptan increased the unbound warfarin serum concentration. The prothrombin time-international normalized ratio (PT-INR) tended to increase within 2 weeks when tolvaptan was added at clinically used doses (p=0.14). Special attention is warranted in cases with a serum tolvaptan concentration of ≥125 ng/mL (≥7.5 mg/d) for at least 2 weeks following oral tolvaptan administration.

Warfarin drug interaction with vitamin K and other foodstuffs / Interacción de la droga warfarina con la vitamina K y otros productos alimenticios

Vitamin K is found in higher concentrations in dark green plant and in vegetable oils. The adequate intake of vitamin K is 90 and 120ug/day for adult elderly men and women, respectively. The main function of vitamin K is to act as an enzymatic cofactor for hepatic prothrombin synthesis, blood coagulation factors, and anticoagulant proteins. Prominent among the many available anticoagulants is warfarin, an antagonist of vitamin K, which exerts its anticoagulant effects by inhibiting the synthesis of vitamin K1 and vitamin KH2. From the beginning of the therapy it is necessary that the patients carry out the monitoring through the prothrombin time and the international normalized ratio. However, it is known that very low intake and/or fluctuations in vitamin K intake are as harmful as high consumption. In addition, other foods can interact with warfarin, despite their content of vitamin K. The aim of this study was to gather information on the drug interaction of warfarin with vitamin K and with dietary supplements and other foods.

La vitamina K se encuentra en concentraciones más altas en plantas de color verde oscuro y en aceites vegetales. La ingesta adecuada de vitamina K es de 90 y 120 ug/día para hombres y mujeres adultos mayores, respectivamente. La función principal de la vitamina K es actuar como un cofactor enzimático para la síntesis de protrombina hepática, factores de coagulación de la sangre y proteínas anticoagulantes. Entre los muchos anticoagulantes disponibles destaca la warfarina, un antagonista de la vitamina K, que ejerce sus efectos anticoagulantes al inhibir la síntesis de la vitamina K1 y la vitamina KH2. Desde el inicio de la terapia, es necesario que los pacientes realicen el monitoreo a través del tiempo de protrombina y la proporción normalizada internacional. Sin embargo, se sabe que una ingesta muy baja y/o fluctuaciones en la ingesta de vitamina K son tan dañinas como un consumo alto. Además, otros alimentos pueden interactuar con la warfarina, a pesar de su contenido de vitamina K. El objetivo de este estudio fue recopilar información sobre la interacción de los medicamentos de la warfarina con la vitamina K y con los suplementos dietéticos y otros alimentos.

Synthesis, biochemical evaluation, and molecular modeling of organophosphate-coumarin hybrids as potent and selective butyrylcholinesterase inhibitors.

A small library of new organophosphorylated warfarins and 3-benzylcoumarins were synthesized and evaluated for in vitro cholinesterase inhibition by Ellman's method. Most of the compounds were found to be selective for butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) over acetylcholinesterase (AChE), with IC50 values ranging from 0.363 µM to 53.0 µM determined after 15 s of enzyme exposure. Comparison of the most potent compound, 3b with its constitutional isomer 2b revealed the high importance of phosphate positioning. Reversed selectivity and a 100-fold reduction in anti-BChE activity was observed when the organophosphate was attached to the benzyl instead of the coumarin. Docking calculations suggest that 3b binds initially as a transition state mimic with near-optimal phosphate orientation relative to S198 and occupation of the oxyanion hole prior to phosphorylation. These results might inspire the design of a new type of non-neuropathic and irreversible coumarin-based inhibitor against BChE.

Comparing outcomes and costs among warfarin-sensitive patients versus warfarin-insensitive patients using The Right Drug, Right Dose, Right Time: Using genomic data to individualize treatment (RIGHT) 10K warfarin cohort.

Oral anticoagulant (OAC) therapy has been the main treatment approach for stroke prevention for decades. Warfarin is the most widely prescribed OAC in the United States, but is difficult to manage due to variability in dose requirements across individuals. Pharmacogenomics may mitigate risk concerns related to warfarin use by fostering the opportunity to facilitate individualized medicine approaches to warfarin treatment (e.g., genome-guided dosing). While various economic evaluations exist examining the cost-effectiveness of pharmacogenomics testing for warfarin, few observational studies exist to support these studies, with even fewer using genotype as the main exposure of interest. We examined a cohort of individuals initiating warfarin therapy between 2004 and 2017 and examined bleeding and cost outcomes for the year following initiation using Mayo Clinic's billing and administrative data, as well the Mayo Clinic Rochester Cost Data Warehouse. Analyses included descriptive summaries, comparison of characteristics across exposure groups, reporting of crude outcomes, and multivariate analyses. We included N = 1,143 patients for analyses. Just over a third of our study population (34.9%) carried a warfarin-sensitive phenotype. Sensitive individuals differed in their baseline characteristics by being of older age and having a higher number of comorbid conditions; myocardial infarction, diabetes, and cancer in particular. The occurrence of bleeding events was not significantly different across exposure groups. No significant differences across exposure groups existed in either the likelihood of incurring all-cause healthcare costs or in the magnitude of those costs. Warfarin-sensitive individuals were no more likely to utilize cardiovascular-related healthcare services; however, they had lower total and inpatient cardiovascular-related costs compared to warfarin-insensitive patients. No significant differences existed in any other categories of costs. We found limited evidence that warfarin-sensitive individuals have different healthcare spending than warfarin-insensitive individuals. Additional real-world studies are needed to support the traditional economic evaluations currently existing in the literature.

A survey of precision diagnosis and management capacity of pulmonary embolism in 90 hospitals of China.

OBJECTIVE: To conduct a survey of diagnostic facility and therapeutic capability of Pulmonary thromboembolism (PE) in 90 hospitals throughout China. METHOD: It was a cross-sectional study among the participating hospitals of the National Key Research & Development Program of China-the Precision Research of Standardized Management and Application of Pulmonary Thromboembolism to obtain the equipment and application of radiological facility to diagnose PE, laboratory tests for thrombophilia, coagulation function and the availability of anticoagulants and thrombolysis agents. RESULTS: CT pulmonary arteriography is capable in all 90 hospitals, 71.11% of the hospitals could perform ventilation/perfusion scintigraphy, 24.44% of the hospitals do not routinely perform right heart evaluation by echocardiography. Protein C and protein S activity can be detected in half of the hospitals and warfarin pharmacogenomics tests can be conducted in 40 hospitals. Immune turbidimetry was used as the detection method of D-dimer in 72.37% hospitals. About 81.11% of participating hospitals were equipped with new novel oral anticoagulants, all of which were equipped with Rivaroxaban. CONCLUSION: The hospitals are capable for standardized diagnosis and management PE, while the capability of precise stratification, coagulation function tests, thrombophilia screening and pharmacogenomics requires further improvement.

Characterizing the interactions of the antipsychotic drug trifluoperazine with bovine serum albumin: Probing the drug-protein and drug-drug interactions using multi-spectroscopic approaches.

Trifluoperazine is a potent antipsychotic drug used in the treatment of neurological disorders. The usage of trifluoperazine is often found to be associated with more adverse side effects as compared to other low-potency antipsychotic agents. Plasma proteins play an inevitable role in determining the pharmacokinetic properties of a drug. Hence, this study was conducted with an aim to characterize the interactions of trifluoperazine with bovine serum albumin and determine the influence of other small molecules on its interaction with serum albumin. Trifluoperazine bound to BSA at two independent sites with Kd values of 9.5 and 172.6 µM. Förster resonance energy transfer and computational docking analysis revealed that both the binding sites of trifluoperazine were located closer to TRP 213 in subdomain IIA of BSA. Evaluation of trifluoperazine-BSA interactions at three different temperatures indicated that there was a stable complex formation between the two molecules at the ground state and that the static quenching mechanism was predominant behind these interactions. Binding studies in the presence of pharmaceutically relevant drugs indicated that warfarin, paracetamol, and caffeine negatively influenced the binding of trifluoperazine on BSA. Lastly, Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy and circular dichroism spectroscopy indicated that the binding of trifluoperazine induced a conformational change by reducing the α-helical content of BSA. The study implicates that the small molecules which prefer binding to the Sudlow site I of BSA might compete with trifluoperazine for its binding site thereby increasing the concentration of free trifluoperazine in the plasma which could lead to adverse side effects in patients.