What's going on with teleworking? a scoping review of its effects on well-being.

Studies of teleworking and well-being increased dramatically during the COVID-19 pandemic. This article aims to provide an overview of this emerging body of knowledge. Following the PRISMA guidelines, we performed a scoping review using Social Sciences Citation Index (Web of Science), Sociological Abstracts (PROQUEST), and SocINDEX with full text (EBSCOhost). Articles published in English up to December 2022 were included. The result was a total of 2695 potentially relevant studies. After a double-screening procedure, 132 studies were chosen for data extraction. A content analysis was carried out to provide a summary of the social mechanisms linking teleworking to indicators of well-being related to mental health and quality of life. A complex picture of variables emerges on the impact of teleworking through direct or indirect mechanisms and a number of interactions with worker's characteristics. First, the features of the environment matter, as it affects well-being, for example, depending on a better digital infrastructure, access to daylight and sufficient space. Second, it is not only a question of "where" we telework, but also "how much". The advantages of a hybrid mode seem to be emerging to avoid an excessive lack of in-person social interaction, while offering greater flexibility in organizing daily life and reducing commuting times. Third, beyond the modalities of teleworking per se, it is key to take into account how these interact with workers' personalities, their choices and preferences, which are often dictated by the stage of life they are in, e.g., parenting and career stages. In sum, the literature suggests that a straight answer on the positive or negative effects of teleworking is neither useful nor necessary. Multiple answers are possible to unveil the specific working arrangements that makes workers' lives better according to their different needs. It seems essential to continue research on teleworking away from the exceptional stressors of the COVID-19 pandemic, which have greatly skewed the evidence on the detrimental effects of teleworking. Planning more complex research designs using longitudinal data and network analyses could improve understanding of how teleworking is changing careers, lifestyles and social relationships.

Rates of, and factors associated with, common mental disorders in homeworking UK Government response employees' during COVID-19: a cross-sectional survey and secondary data analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Working on the frontline during the COVID-19 pandemic has been associated with increased risk to mental health and wellbeing in multiple occupations and contexts. The current study aimed to provide an insight into the rate of probable mental health problems amongst United Kingdom (UK) Government employees who contributed to the COVID-19 response whilst working from home, and to ascertain what factors and constructs, if any, influence mental health and wellbeing in the sample population. METHOD: This paper reports on the findings from two studies completed by UK Government employees. Study 1: A cross-sectional online survey, containing standardised and validated measures of common mental health disorders of staff who actively contributed to the COVID-19 response from their own homes. Binary logistic regression was used to assess factors associated with mental health outcomes. Study 2: A secondary data analysis of cross-sectional survey data collected across three timepoints (May, June, and August) in 2020 focusing on the wellbeing of employees who worked from home during the COVID-19 pandemic. RESULTS: Study 1: 17.9% of participants met the threshold criteria for a probable moderate anxiety disorder, moderate depression, or post-traumatic stress disorder. Younger, less resilient, less productive individuals, with lower personal wellbeing and less enjoyment of working from home, were more likely to present with poorer mental health. Study 2: Found lower wellbeing was consistently associated with having less opportunities to look after one's physical and mental health, and having unsupportive line managers and colleagues. CONCLUSION: It is important to ensure UK Government employees' psychological needs are met whilst working from home and responding to enhanced incidents. It is recommended that workplaces should be seeking to continually build and improve employee resilience (e.g., through opportunities to increase social ties and support networks), essentially ensuring employees have necessary resources and skills to support themselves and others.

Does working from home work? That depends on the home.

Working from home (WFH) has risen in popularity since the COVID-19 pandemic. There is an ongoing debate about the productivity implications of WFH, but the physical climate of the home office has received only limited attention. This paper investigates the effect of home office satisfaction and environment-improving behavior on productivity and burnout tendency for WFH employees. We surveyed over 1,000 Dutch WFH individuals about their home office and perceived WFH performance. We fit logistic regressions and structural equation models to investigate the effect of home office satisfaction and characteristics on self-reported productivity, burnout tendency, and willingness to continue WFH. Our results reveal that individual differences in WFH productivity are explained by heterogeneity in the physical home office environment. Higher satisfaction with home office factors is significantly associated with increased productivity and decreased burnout tendency. We continue by showing that more ventilation during working hours is associated with increased productivity, willingness to continue WFH, and burnout resilience. This effect is fully mediated by satisfaction with the home office. We find that higher home office satisfaction is associated with WFH success and air-quality-improving behavior is associated with higher satisfaction. Our results underline a holistic perspective such that investing in a healthy and objectively measured physical climate is a key aspect of the bright future of working from home. The move from the work office to the home office needs to be accompanied by careful design and investment in the quality of the office and its climate.

Working Hours, Shift, and Remote Work by Industry and Occupation in U.S. Full-time Workers.

BACKGROUND: This study examines working hours, shift work, and remote work patterns by occupation and industry among U.S. full-time workers, along with the association between working and sleeping hours. METHODS: Utilizing data from 2011 to 2020 American Time Use Survey, this national household survey examines how individuals aged 15 years or older in the United States spend their time within a 24-hour period. FINDINGS: In 2011 to 2019, U.S. full-time workers averaged 8.1 hours of work and 7.8 hours spent sleep on workdays, increasing to 9.6 hours on non-workdays. Among all occupations, Emergency medical technicians and paramedics had the longest average working hours (10.4 hours). Protective services occupations had the highest percentage (41.7%) of workers reporting often working shifts other than daytime. Among all industries, truck transportation industry had the longest average working hours (9.2). Food services and drinking places industries had the highest percentage (28.6%) of workers reporting often working shifts other than daytime. Working hours showed a negative association with sleeping hours. In 2020, 34.0% of full-time workers reported remote work due to COVID-19, with the largest percentage (72.3%) occurring in business and financial operations. CONCLUSIONS: The study findings offer essential benchmarks for comparing working hours and schedules across diverse occupations and industries. These insights empower occupational health practitioners to advocate for prevention measures, addressing health concerns arising from prolonged working hours and shift work.

Quality Assessment of a Virtual Post Offer Placement Assessment in Employee Occupational Health Services.

OBJECTIVE: The rise in remote work and increased access to technology allow opportunity for virtual onboarding. The aim of this project was to assess the quality of virtual onboarding versus the traditional in-person onboarding. METHODS: A multidisciplinary team utilized a survey to evaluate staff and new hire candidate satisfaction with the in-person versus virtual post offer placement assessment (POPA). RESULTS: The virtual POPA process maintained a high-level of quality and satisfaction among new hire healthcare candidates compared to in-person onboarding, with shorter appointment times. Employee Occupational Health Services staff and new hire candidates reported a preference for the virtual POPA process over traditional in-person onboarding. CONCLUSIONS: The virtual POPA option reduced the length of appointments and maintained satisfaction and quality of service.

Remote working and experiential wellbeing: A latent lifestyle perspective using UK time use survey before and during COVID-19.

Mental health in the UK had deteriorated compared with pre-pandemic trends. Existing studies on heterogenous wellbeing changes associated COVID-19 tend to segment population based on isolated socio-economic and demographic indicators, notably gender, income and ethnicity, while a more holistic and contextual understanding of such heterogeneity among the workforce seems lacking. This study addresses this gap by 1) combining UK time use surveys collected before and during COVID-19, 2) identifying latent lifestyles within three working mode groups (commuter, homeworker and hybrid worker) using latent class model, and 3) quantifying nuanced experiential wellbeing (ExWB) changes across workers of distinct lifestyles. The direction and magnitude of ExWB changes were not uniform across activity types, time of day, and lifestyles. The direction of ExWB change during the daytime activities window varied in accordance with lifestyle classifications. Specifically, ExWB decreased for all homeworkers but increased significantly for certain hybrid workers. Magnitude of ExWB change correlated strongly with lifestyle. To understand the significant heterogeneity in ExWB outcomes, a spatial-temporal conceptualisation of working flexibility is developed to explicate the strong yet complex correlations between wellbeing and lifestyles. The implications to post-pandemic "back-to-work" policies are 1) continued expansion of hybrid working optionality, 2) provide wider support for lifestyle adaptation and transitions.

Teleworking: does it make workers healthier and productive? A cross-sectional study on a Southern European population.

BACKGROUND: Teleworking (TW) has recently shifted from a marginal into a common practice. Yet, concerns have been raised regarding potential work-health negative effects, related to the reduced socialization, and extended working hours with computers at home, possibly offset by reduced commuting time or better individual work-life balance. This paper aims at describing the influence of TW on health, well-being, and productivity perceptions, and how this is shaped by TW conditions. METHODS: We collected data from workers of 25 companies that exert their activity in Portugal. Data were completed with a representative sample of workers who regularly participate in surveys (total N = 1,069). We applied an on-line questionnaire from September the 1st 2022 to December the 1st 2022. We performed a simple descriptive analysis of each variable. Then, we analyzed the relationship between TW conditions and self-reported health, and between TW conditions at home and productivity, using logistic regression models. RESULTS: We observed a high prevalence of self-perceived health worsening (15.9%), mostly among those with poor TW conditions. Most teleworkers enjoyed favorable TW conditions, despite limited company support. Relevant changes were observed in lifestyle factors, towards more smoking (5.5%), alcohol drinking (4.5%), and worse diet (10.1%). Two thirds reported enhanced productivity. A statistically significant relationship was observed between inadequate TW conditions, health deterioration, and lower productivity. A 6.0% point (pp) increased risk of productivity worsening was observed when employees faced at least one inadequate condition at home (no private working place at home, inadequate heating, artificial light, or absence of well-being at home). The risk of health deterioration increased by 12.9 pp when facing at least one of these inadequate conditions, and by 6.3 under hybrid TW, compared to one or two days of TW. CONCLUSIONS: Most teleworkers highlighted a positive perspective about teleworking. Yet, TW conditions are not favorable for all workers, with consequences on health, well-being, and productivity, suggesting that further support is needed for teleworkers to protect their health at home, and reach its maximum benefit.

Employee innovation during office work, work from home and hybrid work.

The Covid-19 pandemic forced firms globally to shift workforces to working from home [WFH]. Firms are now struggling to implement a return to working from the office [WFO], as employees enjoy the significant benefits of WFH for their work-life balance. Therefore many firms are adopting a hybrid model in which employees work partly from the office and partly from home. We use unique and detailed data from an Indian IT services firm which contains a precise measure of innovation activity of over 48,000 employees in these three work environments. Our key outcomes are the quantity and quality of ideas submitted by employees. Based on an event study design, the quantity of ideas did not change during the WFH period as compared to WFO, but the quality of ideas suffered. During the later hybrid period, the quantity of submitted ideas fell. In the hybrid phase innovation suffered particularly in teams which were not well coordinated in terms of when they worked at the office or from home. Our findings suggest that remote and hybrid work modes may inhibit collaboration and innovation.

Remote work transition amidst COVID-19: Impacts on presenteeism, absenteeism, and worker well-being-A scoping review.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the transition to remote work, leading to increased attention on presenteeism and absenteeism among remote workers. Understanding the implications of these phenomena on worker health and productivity is crucial for optimizing remote work arrangements and developing policies to improve employee well-being. OBJECTIVES: This scoping review aims to examine the occurrence of presenteeism and absenteeism among remote workers during the COVID-19 pandemic and the interrelated physical and mental health issues during these periods. METHODS: PsycINFO, Medline, Embase, CINAHL, Eric, Business Source Premier, SCOPUS, and sociological abstracts were searched resulting in 1792 articles. Articles were included if the population of interest was 18+ (i.e., working age), engaged in full or part-time work, and the employees shifted from in-person to remote work due to the COVID-19 pandemic. All study designs, geographical areas, and papers written post-onset of the COVID-19 pandemic were included; however, systematic reviews were excluded. Data was charted into Microsoft Excel by 2 independent reviewers. RESULTS: The literature search identified 10 studies (i.e., seven cross-sectional studies, two qualitative studies, and one observational study). Five major overarching themes were identified specifically (1) telework and mental health (2) telework and physical health (3) worker benefits (4) gender dynamics and (5) difficulty navigating the teleworking environment. While remote work offers flexibility in terms of saved commute time and flexible work schedules, it also exacerbates challenges related to presenteeism, absenteeism, and work-life balance. These challenges include experiencing psychological distress, depression, anxiety, stress, sleep deprivation, musculoskeletal pain, difficulties concentrating at work for both women and working parents, struggles disconnecting after hours, and the inability to delineate between the work and home environment. DISCUSSION: The findings suggest that remote work during the COVID-19 pandemic has both positive and negative implications for worker well-being and productivity. However, future research needs to incorporate the potential effects of telework frequency (full time vs. part time) on employee productivity and its role on presenteeism and absenteeism, to gain a more comprehensive understanding on remote work difficulties. Addressing these challenges requires proactive interventions and support mechanisms to promote worker health and productivity in remote settings.

Socio-economic differences in remote schoolwork during the COVID-19 pandemic: a trend analysis of the 2020 and 2021 school-closure periods using the UK Understanding Society data.

In the United Kingdom, the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and 2021 led to two extended periods of school closures. Research on inequality of learning opportunity as a result of these closures used a single indicator of socio-economic status, neglecting important determinants of remote learning. Using data from the Understanding Society (USoc) COVID-19 surveys we analysed the levels and differentials in the uptake of remote schoolwork using parental social class, information technology (IT) availability in the home and parental working patterns to capture the distinct resources that families needed to complete remote schoolwork. This is also the first study to assess the extent to which the differentials between socio-economic groups changed between the first and second school-closure periods caused by the pandemic. We found that each of the three factors showed an independent association with the volume of remote schoolwork and that their effect was magnified by their combination. Children in families where the main parent was in an upper-class occupation, where both parents worked from home and where the children had their own IT spent more time doing remote schoolwork than other groups, particularly compared to children of single parents who work from home, children in families where the main parent was in a working-class occupation, where the child had to share IT, and where the parents did not work regularly from home. The differentials between socio-economic groups in the uptake of schoolwork were found to be stable between the two school-closure periods.

Transitioning to Working from Home Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic Significantly Increased Sedentary Behavior and Decreased Physical Activity: A Meta-Analysis.

At the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, many workplaces transitioned to remote work, which altered lifestyle behaviors. We conducted a meta-analysis to understand if the transition to working from home due to the pandemic affected workers' physical activity and sedentary behavior worldwide. We reviewed articles published between November 2019 and May 2022. Of an initial 3485 articles, a total of 17 were included, 15 of 17 were included for their physical activity (PA) comparisons (n = 36,650), and 12 of 17 (n = 57,254) were included for their sedentary behavior (SB) comparisons (10 studies have data for both PA and SB). This work is registered through PROSPERO (CRD42022356000). Working from home resulted in a significant decrease in PA (Hedge's g = -0.29, 95% CI [-0.41, -0.18]) and an increase in SB (Hedge's g = +0.36, 95% CI [0.20, 0.52]). Working from home impaired preventative activity behaviors, and these results are relevant to worker health as the future of work evolves beyond the pandemic.

Practical Considerations of Workplace Wellbeing Management under Post-Pandemic Work-from-Home Conditions.

As a natural experiment or "stress test" on the rapidly shifting work environment from office to home during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, staff wellbeing has been considered as the most critical issue in organizational change management. Following an overview of the relevant literature and recent official statistics, this essay aims to (i) address the major considerations and challenges in light of the transformation and re-design of the mode of work in the new normal and (ii) inform practical decisions for overall staff wellbeing under post-pandemic work-from-home (WFH) conditions with recommendations. For the sake of both staff healthiness and safety, as well as organizational competitiveness, senior management should take reasonable steps to enhance occupational safety in their WFH policy in line with practical recommendations on five areas, namely, (i) ergonomics, (ii) stress and anxiety management, (iii) workplace boundaries, (iv) work-family conflicts, and (v) other factors regarding a negative work atmosphere (e.g., loneliness attack, burnout, and workplace violence) particularly on virtual platforms. With the suggested evidence-based practices on WFH initiatives, senior management could make a difference in optimizing the overall workplace wellbeing of staff after the pandemic.

Ergonomics, Health, and Perceptions about Remote Domestic Workposts: Study in Areas of City of João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil.

Home office (HO) stands out as one of the most promising and popular forms of teleworking, especially after the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, many companies want to implement or maintain this working method, given its numerous advantages. However, there are adverse effects that are mainly related to physical and mental health. This article presents ergonomic analyses of HOs in neighborhoods considered heat islands. Temperature levels, extreme low-frequency non-ionizing radiation (ELF-NIR), illuminance, physical layout characteristics, and physiological parameters of teleworkers were measured. The results reveal that 92% of these professionals work 6 to 8 h daily with an ambient temperature between 25 and 30 °C, illumination levels in the range 11.20-290 Lux, and ELF-NIR > 0.4 µT. The majority of teleworkers are overweight (BMI > 24.9), and some of them have blood pressure higher than average values (129 mmHg for systolic and 84 mmHg for diastolic) in addition to a reduction in the number of red blood cells and hematocrits. Symptoms such as burning sensation, dryness, tired eyes, redness, itching, and photophobia (light sensitivity) show a 68.95% similarity. These HOs do not meet the required ergonomic and health standards.

Distribution of COVID-19 mitigation measures by industry and work arrangement-US blood donors, May 2021-December 2021.

OBJECTIVE: To describe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) mitigation measures in workplaces of employed US blood donors by industry and work arrangement. METHODS: During May-December 2021, blood donors responded to a survey; we describe the distribution of reported workplace mitigation measures by industry and work arrangement, organized using the hierarchy of controls. RESULTS: Of 53,433 respondents representing 21 industries, ventilation upgrades were reported by 4%-38% of respondents (overall: 20%); telework access ranged from 14%-80% (53% overall). Requiring masks (overall: 84%; range: 40%-94%), physical distancing (77%; 51%-86%), paid leave for illness (70%; 38%-87%), and encouraging vaccination (61%; 33%-80%) were common. Independent workers reported fewer mitigation measures than those in traditional employment settings. CONCLUSIONS: Mitigation measures varied by industry and work arrangement. Some mitigation measures may be challenging to implement or irrelevant in certain industries, supporting the idea that mitigation is not a one-size-fits-all strategy. POLICY IMPLICATIONS: Tailored strategies to mitigate workplace risks of disease transmission are vital. Strategies should rely on effective methods for identifying workplace controls (e.g., through the hierarchy of controls) and account for industry-specific characteristics and workplace environments.

Biophilia in the home-workplace: Integrating dog caregiving and outdoor access to explain teleworkers' daily physical activity, loneliness, and job performance.

We examined whether dog caregiving and outdoor access affect the relationships between a teleworking day and teleworkers' daily physical activity, loneliness, and job performance during the pandemic in two different seasons in 2021. Building on the biophilia hypothesis, we hypothesized that dog caregiving and outdoor access would attenuate the adverse effects of telework on our outcomes. We tested our cross-level moderation hypotheses in a Belgian daily diary data set combining two data collections during 10 workdays in two seasons: One in 284 teleworking employees in spring and one in 151 teleworking employees in autumn-of whom 75 also participated in spring (Npersons = 360, Ndatapoints = 3,809). Consistent with our hypotheses, mixed coefficient modeling showed two-way interactions between teleworking day and dog caregiving, and between teleworking day and outdoor access on daily physical activity, daily loneliness, and daily job performance. Specifically, both dog caregiving and outdoor access buffered against the harmful effects of a teleworking day on these three outcomes: On teleworking days compared to nonteleworking days, there was a smaller decrease in physical activity and in job performance for employees who had a dog or who had outdoor access compared to employees who did not. Likewise, dog caregiving and outdoor access buffered against an increase in loneliness on teleworking days, with a less steep increase for employees with a dog or outdoor access. Our study shows the importance of contextualizing the home context more broadly by including dogs and outdoor access at home when considering the effects of telework during and after the pandemic. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Telework and 24-hour movement behaviours among adults living in Canada during the COVID-19 pandemic.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the association between work location and movement behaviours (physical activity [PA], screen time, sleep) and adherence to the Canadian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines (24-H Guidelines) among Canadian workers during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: Using cross-sectional data from the 2021 Canadian Community Health Survey (n = 10,913 working adults 18-75 years), primary work location was categorized as: worked outside the home at a fixed location (fixed workplace), worked at home (telework), and worked outside the home at no fixed location (non-fixed workplace). Recreational, transportation and occupational/household PA, as well as leisure screen time and sleep duration were self-reported. Logistic regression assessed associations between work location and adherence to movement behaviour recommendations, adjusting for covariates. RESULTS: Compared to a fixed workplace, those teleworking reported more recreational PA (21.1 vs 17.0 min/day, p < 0.0001) and sleep (7.2 vs 7.1 h/night, p = 0.026) and were more likely to meet sleep duration recommendations (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.28, 95% CI: 1.08-1.51) and the 24-H Guidelines (aOR = 1.25, 95% CI: 1.04-1.51). Compared to fixed workplaces, those at non-fixed workplaces reported more occupational PA (62.7 vs 32.8 min/day, p < 0.0001) and less leisure screen time (2.5 vs 2.7 h/day, p = 0.021), and were more likely to meet the PA recommendation (aOR = 1.46, 95% CI: 1.15-1.85) and the 24-H Guidelines (aOR = 1.38, 95% CI: 1.09-1.75). CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that adherence to the 24-H Guidelines varies by work location, and work location should be considered when developing strategies to promote healthy movement behaviours. Future studies could explore hybrid work arrangements, and longitudinal study designs.

The Digital Economy and Hybrid Work Call for a Review of Compensation Criteria for Musculoskeletal Disorders.

Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMSD) pose a significant occupational health challenge in Europe. The digitization of the economy substantially reshaped the nature and organization of work. The proliferation of hybrid working, characterized by a combination of office-based and remote work, has been accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic. This review covers hybrid forms of work, their impact on WRMSDs, and the potential implications for WRMSD compensation. Approximately 30-40% of the European workforce could potentially transition to hybrid forms of work. Hybrid work arrangements can result in prolonged static postures of the trunk, neck, and upper limbs without adequate breaks, thereby increasing the risk of neck and lower back pain. As teleworking and hybrid working become more prevalent, an increase in non-specific WRMSDs is anticipated among the working population. In many countries, claims for WRMSDs necessitate a formal diagnosis by a healthcare professional. However, cases of non-specific WRMSDs, such as cervicalgia or chronic shoulder pain, - commonly observed in sedentary workers engaged in predominantly low-intensity, prolonged static work amid visually and cognitively demanding tasks - often do not meet the criteria for compensation as occupational diseases. The compensation system and/or the criteria for compensation must be adapted to accommodate the rise of telework, necessitating evolving criteria for compensation that address both medical and risk exposure considerations.

Comparing Exposure to Psychosocial Risks: Face-to-Face Work vs. Telework.

BACKGROUND: In recent years, substantial changes have occurred in the work organization and arrangements. One of the main ones has been the popularization of teleworking among non-manual workers. This paper aims to assess the exposure of psychosocial risks among non-manual Spanish wage-earners, depending on the working modality (mainly telework, combining teleworking with onsite work, or onsite work). METHODS: Based on an online survey conducted between April and May 2021, a cross-sectional study was carried out among n=11,519 members of a trade union where Psychosocial Risks (PSR) were measured through COPSOQ Questionnaire Scales. All analyses were performed stratifying by sex. RESULTS: Women who combine telework and face-to-face work (aPR: 1.21; 95%CI 1.07-1.37) and men who mainly telework (aPR: 1.26; 95%CI 1.11-1.43) and that combine (aPR: 1.27; 95%CI 1.11-1.45) are more exposed to quantitative demands than men and women who do not telework. On the other hand, women who telework, either entirely (aPR: 0.89; 95%CI 0.82-0.97) or combining (aPR: 0.89; 95%CI 0.81-0.98), are less exposed to emotional demands than women who do not telework, and the same occurs among men who mainly telework (aPR: 0.84; 95%CI 0.76-0.92). Telework and horizontal or vertical social support are not associated, except for supervisor support among males, nor with work-life conflict. CONCLUSIONS: Except for quantitative demands, employees who combine telework and face-to-face work are less exposed to psychosocial risks than those who mainly telework or work face-to-face only. More studies with a gender and class perspective are needed in this area.

Hybrid working from home improves retention without damaging performance.

Working from home has become standard for employees with a university degree. The most common scheme, which has been adopted by around 100 million employees in Europe and North America, is a hybrid schedule, in which individuals spend a mix of days at home and at work each week1,2. However, the effects of hybrid working on employees and firms have been debated, and some executives argue that it damages productivity, innovation and career development3-5. Here we ran a six-month randomized control trial investigating the effects of hybrid working from home on 1,612 employees in a Chinese technology company in 2021-2022. We found that hybrid working improved job satisfaction and reduced quit rates by one-third. The reduction in quit rates was significant for non-managers, female employees and those with long commutes. Null equivalence tests showed that hybrid working did not affect performance grades over the next two years of reviews. We found no evidence for a difference in promotions over the next two years overall, or for any major employee subgroup. Finally, null equivalence tests showed that hybrid working had no effect on the lines of code written by computer-engineer employees. We also found that the 395 managers in the experiment revised their surveyed views about the effect of hybrid working on productivity, from a perceived negative effect (-2.6% on average) before the experiment to a perceived positive one (+1.0%) after the experiment. These results indicate that a hybrid schedule with two days a week working from home does not damage performance.

Whom Does Remote Work Make Happy? The Digital Divide in Remote Workers' Well-Being.

The global shift to remote work during the COVID-19 pandemic has intensified scholarly attention to remote workers' well-being. Although existing studies explore the varied impacts of remote work, there is a gap in understanding remote workers' well-being through the lenses of social disparity and the digital divide. Extending digital divide scholarship to the remote work context, this study disentangles why some remote workers experience better well-being than others. We conducted a two-wave longitudinal panel study in South Korea during the COVID-19 pandemic (Wave 1: February 2021, Wave 2: October 2021). Among the 501 participants who participated in both waves, we found that individuals with lower education levels were less likely to have remote work opportunities. We focused our further analyses on a subset of 144 employees who had remote work opportunities within organizations with typical hierarchical structures. We found that socioeconomic status (SES) did not directly influence remote workers' well-being but indirectly influenced it by contributing to the diversity in using information and communication technologies (ICTs). Workers with higher SES or more diversity in using ICTs demonstrated lower vulnerability and more effectiveness in maintaining their well-being in virtual organizational communication situations. This study highlights social disparities in remote workers' well-being, which arise from the complex interplay of SES either indirectly influencing the diversity in ICT usage or interacting with virtual organizational communication satisfaction and duration. This study advances remote work scholarship by restructuring theoretical discussions on social stratification and the digital divide reproduced within the evolving work environment.