Transcriptome analysis of Bacillus thuringiensis spore life, germination and cell outgrowth in a vegetable-based food model.

Toxigenic species belonging to Bacillus cereus sensu lato, including Bacillus thuringiensis, cause foodborne outbreaks thanks to their capacity to survive as spores and to grow in food matrixes. The goal of this work was to assess by means of a genome-wide transcriptional assay, in the food isolate B. thuringiensis UC10070, the gene expression behind the process of spore germination and consequent outgrowth in a vegetable-based food model. Scanning electron microscopy and Energy Dispersive X-ray microanalysis were applied to select the key steps of B. thuringiensis UC10070 cell cycle to be analyzed with DNA-microarrays. At only 40 min from heat activation, germination started rapidly and in less than two hours spores transformed in active growing cells. A total of 1646 genes were found to be differentially expressed and modulated during the entire B. cereus life cycle in the food model, with most of the significant genes belonging to transport, transcriptional regulation and protein synthesis, cell wall and motility and DNA repair groups. Gene expression studies revealed that toxin-coding genes nheC, cytK and hblC were found to be expressed in vegetative cells growing in the food model.

Adhesive behaviour and virulence of coagulase negative staphylococci isolated from Italian cheeses.

Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) belong to saprophytic microbiota on the skin and mucous membranes of warm-blooded animals and humans, but are also isolated from foodstuffs such as meat, cheese, and milk. In other circumstances, some CoNS can act as pathogens. Thus the presence of CoNS may not be an immediate danger to public health, but can become a risk factor. In particular antibiotic-resistant genes could be transferred to other potentially pathogenic microorganisms. Furthermore, CoNS are known to be strong biofilm producers and this is also a risk factor for public health. The aim of the present work was to determine the genotypic and phenotypic profiles of 106 CoNS belonging to four different species isolated from five different Italian cheeses for the presence of some adhesion and virulence features. In order to verify a possible correlation between the formation of biofilm and staphylococcal virulence factors, we checked the presence of adhesin genes by PCR and we investigated the ability of these strains to make biofilm at different temperatures. Furthermore, in some conditions, we analyzed surface proteins and autolytic pattern of selected strains. In conclusion, we checked the presence of norA and mecA genes responsible for fluoroquinolones and methicillin resistance, respectively. We found resistant genes in a proportion of the food isolates in amounts of 9.4% (mecA) and 5.7% (norA). These data support the importance to continuously examine the microbiota not only for the creation of a database but also to safeguard public health.

Lactic Acid Bacteria Adjunct Cultures Exert a Mitigation Effect against Spoilage Microbiota in Fresh Cheese.

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) have a strong mitigation potential as adjunct cultures to inhibit undesirable bacteria in fermented foods. In fresh cheese with low salt concentration, spoilage and pathogenic bacteria can affect the shelf life with smear on the surface and packaging blowing. In this work, we studied the spoilage microbiota of an Italian fresh cheese to find tailor-made protective cultures for its shelf life improvement. On 14-tested LAB, three of them, namely Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus LRH05, Latilactobacillus sakei LSK04, and Carnobacterium maltaromaticum CNB06 were the most effective in inhibiting Gram-negative bacteria. These cultures were assessed by the cultivation-dependent and DNA metabarcoding approach using in vitro experiments and industrial trials. Soft cheese with and without adjunct cultures were prepared and stored at 8 and 14 °C until the end of the shelf life in modified atmosphere packaging. Data demonstrated that the use of adjunct cultures reduce and/or modulate the growth of spoilage microbiota at both temperatures. Particularly, during industrial experiments, C. maltaromaticum CNB06 and Lcb. rhamnosus RH05 lowered psychrotrophic bacteria of almost 3 Log CFU/g in a 5-week stored cheese. On the contrary, Llb. sakei LSK04 was able to colonize the cheese but it was not a good candidate for its inhibition capacity. The combined approach applied in this work allowed to evaluate the protective potential of LAB strains against Gram-negative communities.

Contribution of enterococci to the spread of antibiotic resistance in the production chain of swine meat commodities.

Thirty-six samples, including fecal specimens, dry feedstuffs, raw and processed pork meat products, and dry fermented sausages, were collected from two production chains of swine meat commodities and analyzed for the presence of 11 antibiotic resistance (AR) genes. Specific PCR assays carried out on DNA extracted directly from the samples revealed a high incidence of the genes tet(K) (80.5%), ermB (66.7%), and tet(M) (66.7%). Feces and feedstuffs gave the largest number of positive amplifications. To elucidate the contribution of enterococci to the occurrence and spread of AR, 146 resistant enterococci were isolated, and their identity, genetic fingerprints, and AR gene profiles were determined by means of molecular techniques. Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium were the predominant isolated species (43.8 and 38.4%, respectively); Other Enterococcus species identified were E. durans (8.9%), E. hirae (2.7%), E. gallinarum (2.1%), E. mundtii (2.1%), and E. casseliflavus (2.1%). A number of isolates displayed a complex AR gene profile comprising up to four different resistance determinants. The genes tet(M) and ermB were highly diffused, being present in 86.9 and 84.9%, respectively, of the isolates. The application of amplified fragment length polymorphism fingerprinting was particularly valuable to monitor the resistant enterococcal isolates along the production chain and to individuate steps in which contamination might occur. In fact, isolates of E. faecalis and E. faecium showing the same amplified fragment length polymorphism profile and AR gene pattern were detected in samples taken at different steps of the food chain suggesting three cases of bacterial clonal spread.

Genome Sequence of Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris Mast36, a Strain Isolated from Bovine Mastitis.

The genome sequence of Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris Mast36, isolated from bovine mastitis, is reported here. This strain was shown to be able to grow in milk and still possess genes of vegetable origin. The genome also contains a cluster of genes associated with pathogenicity.

Gene transfer of vancomycin and tetracycline resistances among Enterococcus faecalis during cheese and sausage fermentations.

This study assessed the frequency of transfer of two mobile genetic elements coding for virulence determinants and antibiotic resistance factors, into food associated enterococci during fermentation processes. First, the transfer of the pheromone-inducible pCF10 plasmid, carrying tetracycline resistance and aggregation substance (AS) as virulence factor, between clinical and food strains of Enterococcus faecalis, was investigated in models of cheese and fermented sausage. The experiments demonstrated that even in the absence of selective tetracycline pressure, plasmid pCF10 was transferred from E. faecalis OG1rf cells to food strain E. faecalis BF3098c and that the plasmid subsequently persisted in these environments. Very high frequency of transfer was observed in sausage (10(-3)/recipient) if compared to cheese (10(-6)) and plate mating (10(-4)). Transconjugants were subsequently verified by PCR. The second transmissible element was the plasmid harbouring the vancomycin resistance (VanA phenotype) from E. faecalis A256. The transfer of this antibiotic resistance to a food strain of E. faecalis was studied in vitro and in food models. Although the transfer of vancomycin resistance was achieved in all the environments, the highest conjugation frequencies were observed during the ripening of fermented sausages, reaching 10(-3) transconjugants/recipient cell. PCR confirmed the transfer of the VanA genotype into a food associated Enterococcus strain. This study showed that even in the absence of selective pressure, mobile genetic elements carrying antibiotic resistance and virulence determinants can be transferred at high frequency to food associated enterococci during cheese and sausage fermentation.

Draft Genome Sequence of Vancomycin-Heteroresistant Staphylococcus epidermidis Strain UC7032, Isolated from Food.

Staphylococcus epidermidis strain UC7032 was isolated from ready-to-eat cured meat and is heteroresistant to glycopeptide antibiotics. The draft whole-genome analysis revealed that this strain shows common characteristics typical of strains that are involved in nosocomial infections.

Draft Genome Sequence of Clostridium tyrobutyricum Strain UC7086, Isolated from Grana Padano Cheese with Late-Blowing Defect.

Clostridium tyrobutyricum is considered the main agent of late-blowing defect in the production of hard cheese. Here, we described the draft genome sequences and annotation of C. tyrobutyricum strain UC7086, which was isolated from Grana Padano cheese with blowing defect, and C. tyrobutyricum DSM 2637 type strain in a comparative study.

Vancomycin heteroresistance and biofilm formation in Staphylococcus epidermidis from food.

Staphylococcus epidermidis CNBL 7032 is a heteroresistant strain, with subpopulations resistant to vancomycin concentrations up to 32 mg l (-1), which was isolated from cured pork meat. The mechanisms of glycopeptide resistance in this strain were investigated in this study. S. epidermidis CNBL 7032 does not harbour enterococcal transmissible vancomycin-resistance genes. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that resistant subpopulations have a thicker cell wall, and that the increase in cell wall thickness is proportional to vancomycin concentration in the growth medium. Scanning electron microscopy showed that S. epidermidis CNBL 7032 forms a biofilm-like structure when grown in the presence of vancomycin. This food isolate harbours the gene atlE, coding for an autolysin with an adhesive function, which is involved in the first phase of biofilm formation. This study has demonstrated an interaction between atlE expression, biofilm formation and glycopeptide antibiotic resistance; transcription analysis demonstrated that the expression of atlE increased proportionally with the vancomycin concentration in the culture. Insertional inactivation of atlE confirmed the role of the AtlE autolysin in biofilm and vancomycin resistance.

Antibiotic resistance genes and identification of staphylococci collected from the production chain of swine meat commodities.

Staphylococci harbouring antibiotic resistance (AR) genes may represent a hazard for human health and, as other resistant food-related bacteria, they contribute to the spread of AR. In this study, we isolated resistant staphylococci from an entire swine production chain and investigated the occurrence of 11 genes [aac(6')Ie-aph(2'')Ia, blaZ, mecA, vanA, vanB, ermA, ermB, ermC, tet(M), tet(O) and tet(K)] encoding resistance to some antibiotics largely used in clinical practice. The 66 resistant staphylococcal isolates were identified as Staphylococcus epidermidis (27 isolates), Staphylococcus aureus (12), Staphylococcus xylosus (12), Staphylococcus simulans (5), Staphylococcus pasteuri (4), Staphylococcus carnosus (3), Staphylococcus lentus (2) and Staphylococcus sciuri (1). Specific-PCR detection of AR genes showed the prevalence of the tet(K) gene in most of the isolates (89.4%), followed by tet(M) and ermC (about 75%); mecA was detected in more than half of S. aureus and S. epidermidis isolates. The genes vanA and vanB were not retrieved. It was found that a high proportion of coagulase-positive and -negative isolates are multidrug-resistant and some of them carry up to six AR genes. Our findings show that the swine production chain is a source of antibiotic-resistant staphylococci suggesting the importance of resistance surveillance in the food production environment.