Site-specific ubiquitination of the E3 ligase HOIP regulates apoptosis and immune signaling.

HOIP, the catalytic component of the linear ubiquitin chain assembly complex (LUBAC), is a critical regulator of inflammation. However, how HOIP itself is regulated to control inflammatory responses is unclear. Here, we discover that site-specific ubiquitination of K784 within human HOIP promotes tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-induced inflammatory signaling. A HOIP K784R mutant is catalytically active but shows reduced induction of an NF-κB reporter relative to wild-type HOIP. HOIP K784 is evolutionarily conserved, equivalent to HOIP K778 in mice. We generated HoipK778R/K778R knock-in mice, which show no overt developmental phenotypes; however, in response to TNF, HoipK778R/K778R mouse embryonic fibroblasts display mildly suppressed NF-κB activation and increased apoptotic markers. On the other hand, HOIP K778R enhances the TNF-induced formation of TNFR complex II and an interaction between TNFR complex II and LUBAC. Loss of the LUBAC component SHARPIN leads to embryonic lethality in HoipK778R/K778R mice, which is rescued by knockout of TNFR1. We propose that site-specific ubiquitination of HOIP regulates a LUBAC-dependent switch between survival and apoptosis in TNF signaling.

Precocious expression of Blimp1 in B cells causes autoimmune disease with increased self-reactive plasma cells.

The transcription factor Blimp1 is not only an essential regulator of plasma cells, but also a risk factor for the development of autoimmune disease in humans. Here, we demonstrate in the mouse that the Prdm1 (Blimp1) gene was partially activated at the chromatin and transcription level in early B cell development, although mature Prdm1 mRNA did not accumulate due to posttranscriptional regulation. By analyzing a mouse model that facilitated ectopic Blimp1 protein expression throughout B lymphopoiesis, we could demonstrate that Blimp1 impaired B cell development by interfering with the B cell gene expression program, while leading to an increased abundance of plasma cells by promoting premature plasmablast differentiation of immature and mature B cells. With progressing age, these mice developed an autoimmune disease characterized by the presence of autoantibodies and glomerulonephritis. Hence, these data identified ectopic Blimp1 expression as a novel mechanism, through which Blimp1 can act as a risk factor in the development of autoimmune disease.

Genetically engineered cerebral organoids model brain tumor formation.

Brain tumors are among the most lethal and devastating cancers. Their study is limited by genetic heterogeneity and the incompleteness of available laboratory models. Three-dimensional organoid culture models offer innovative possibilities for the modeling of human disease. Here we establish a 3D in vitro model called a neoplastic cerebral organoid (neoCOR), in which we recapitulate brain tumorigenesis by introducing oncogenic mutations in cerebral organoids via transposon- and CRISPR-Cas9-mediated mutagenesis. By screening clinically relevant mutations identified in cancer genome projects, we defined mutation combinations that result in glioblastoma-like and central nervous system primitive neuroectodermal tumor (CNS-PNET)-like neoplasms. We demonstrate that neoCORs are suitable for use in investigations of aspects of tumor biology such as invasiveness, and for evaluation of drug effects in the context of specific DNA aberrations. NeoCORs will provide a valuable complement to the current basic and preclinical models used to study brain tumor biology.

Author Correction: Genetically engineered cerebral organoids model brain tumor formation.

In the originally published paper, the "before" image for the afatinib condition in Fig. 6c was incorrect. Instead of an image displaying a GBM-3 neoplastic organoid before afatinib treatment, this panel showed an image from the GBM-2 control (DMSO) group before treatment. This error has now been corrected in the HTML and PDF versions of the article; the "before, afatinib" panel in Fig. 6c now shows a representative image from the indicated experiment. The color of all error bars in Fig. 6 has also been changed to black, for consistency. All statistical analysis and all conclusions presented in the article are unaffected by this error. Nevertheless, we apologize for the mistake.

CDK6 coordinates JAK2 V617F mutant MPN via NF-κB and apoptotic networks.

Over 80% of patients with myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) harbor the acquired somatic JAK2 V617F mutation. JAK inhibition is not curative and fails to induce a persistent response in most patients, illustrating the need for the development of novel therapeutic approaches. We describe a critical role for CDK6 in MPN evolution. The absence of Cdk6 ameliorates clinical symptoms and prolongs survival. The CDK6 protein interferes with 3 hallmarks of disease: besides regulating malignant stem cell quiescence, it promotes nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) signaling and contributes to cytokine production while inhibiting apoptosis. The effects are not mirrored by palbociclib, showing that the functions of CDK6 in MPN pathogenesis are largely kinase independent. Our findings thus provide a rationale for targeting CDK6 in MPN.

Hematopoietic expression of a chimeric murine-human CALR oncoprotein allows the assessment of anti-CALR antibody immunotherapies in vivo.

Myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) are characterized by a pathologic expansion of myeloid lineages. Mutations in JAK2, CALR and MPL genes are known to be three prominent MPN disease drivers. Mutant CALR (mutCALR) is an oncoprotein that interacts with and activates the thrombopoietin receptor (MPL) and represents an attractive target for targeted therapy of CALR mutated MPN. We generated a transgenic murine model with conditional expression of the human mutant exon 9 (del52) from the murine endogenous Calr locus. These mice develop essential thrombocythemia like phenotype with marked thrombocytosis and megakaryocytosis. The disease exacerbates with age showing prominent signs of splenomegaly and anemia. The disease is transplantable and mutCALR stem cells show proliferative advantage when compared to wild type stem cells. Transcriptome profiling of hematopoietic stem cells revealed oncogenic and inflammatory gene expression signatures. To demonstrate the applicability of the transgenic animals for immunotherapy, we treated mice with monoclonal antibody raised against the human mutCALR. The antibody treatment lowered platelet and stem cell counts in mutant mice. Secretion of mutCALR did not constitute a significant antibody sink. This animal model not only recapitulates human MPN but also serves as a relevant model for testing immunotherapeutic strategies targeting epitopes of the human mutCALR.

Natural killer cell-intrinsic type I IFN signaling controls Klebsiella pneumoniae growth during lung infection.

Klebsiella pneumoniae is a significant cause of nosocomial pneumonia and an alarming pathogen owing to the recent isolation of multidrug resistant strains. Understanding of immune responses orchestrating K. pneumoniae clearance by the host is of utmost importance. Here we show that type I interferon (IFN) signaling protects against lung infection with K. pneumoniae by launching bacterial growth-controlling interactions between alveolar macrophages and natural killer (NK) cells. Type I IFNs are important but disparate and incompletely understood regulators of defense against bacterial infections. Type I IFN receptor 1 (Ifnar1)-deficient mice infected with K. pneumoniae failed to activate NK cell-derived IFN-γ production. IFN-γ was required for bactericidal action and the production of the NK cell response-amplifying IL-12 and CXCL10 by alveolar macrophages. Bacterial clearance and NK cell IFN-γ were rescued in Ifnar1-deficient hosts by Ifnar1-proficient NK cells. Consistently, type I IFN signaling in myeloid cells including alveolar macrophages, monocytes and neutrophils was dispensable for host defense and IFN-γ activation. The failure of Ifnar1-deficient hosts to initiate a defense-promoting crosstalk between alveolar macrophages and NK cell was circumvented by administration of exogenous IFN-γ which restored endogenous IFN-γ production and restricted bacterial growth. These data identify NK cell-intrinsic type I IFN signaling as essential driver of K. pneumoniae clearance, and reveal specific targets for future therapeutic exploitations.

Linear ubiquitination by LUBEL has a role in Drosophila heat stress response.

The HOIP ubiquitin E3 ligase generates linear ubiquitin chains by forming a complex with HOIL-1L and SHARPIN in mammals. Here, we provide the first evidence of linear ubiquitination induced by a HOIP orthologue in Drosophila We identify Drosophila CG11321, which we named Linear Ubiquitin E3 ligase (LUBEL), and find that it catalyzes linear ubiquitination in vitro We detect endogenous linear ubiquitin chain-derived peptides by mass spectrometry in Drosophila Schneider 2 cells and adult flies. Furthermore, using CRISPR/Cas9 technology, we establish linear ubiquitination-defective flies by mutating residues essential for the catalytic activity of LUBEL Linear ubiquitination signals accumulate upon heat shock in flies. Interestingly, flies with LUBEL mutations display reduced survival and climbing defects upon heat shock, which is also observed upon specific LUBEL depletion in muscle. Thus, LUBEL is involved in the heat response by controlling linear ubiquitination in flies.

Effects of Tulp4 deficiency on murine embryonic development and adult phenotype.

Genetically engineered mouse models have the potential to unravel fundamental biological processes and provide mechanistic insights into the pathogenesis of human diseases. We have previously observed that germline genetic variation at the TULP4 locus influences clinical characteristics in patients with myeloproliferative neoplasms. To elucidate the role of TULP4 in pathological and physiological processes in vivo, we generated a Tulp4 knockout mouse model. Systemic Tulp4 deficiency exerted a strong impact on embryonic development in both Tulp4 homozygous null (Tulp4-/-) and heterozygous (Tulp4+/-) knockout mice, the former exhibiting perinatal lethality. High-resolution episcopic microscopy (HREM) of day 14.5 embryos allowed for the identification of multiple developmental defects in Tulp4-/- mice, including severe heart defects. Moreover, in Tulp4+/- embryos HREM revealed abnormalities of several organ systems, which per se do not affect prenatal or postnatal survival. In adult Tulp4+/- mice, extensive examinations of hematopoietic and cardiovascular features, involving histopathological surveys of multiple tissues as well as blood counts and immunophenotyping, did not provide evidence for anomalies as observed in corresponding embryos. Finally, evaluating a potential obesity-related phenotype as reported for other TULP family members revealed a trend for increased body weight of Tulp4+/- mice. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: To study the role of the TULP4 gene in vivo, we generated a Tulp4 knockout mouse model. Correlative analyses involving HREM revealed a strong impact of Tulp4 deficiency on murine embryonic development.

PCYT2-regulated lipid biosynthesis is critical to muscle health and ageing.

Muscle degeneration is the most prevalent cause for frailty and dependency in inherited diseases and ageing. Elucidation of pathophysiological mechanisms, as well as effective treatments for muscle diseases, represents an important goal in improving human health. Here, we show that the lipid synthesis enzyme phosphatidylethanolamine cytidyltransferase (PCYT2/ECT) is critical to muscle health. Human deficiency in PCYT2 causes a severe disease with failure to thrive and progressive weakness. pcyt2-mutant zebrafish and muscle-specific Pcyt2-knockout mice recapitulate the participant phenotypes, with failure to thrive, progressive muscle weakness and accelerated ageing. Mechanistically, muscle Pcyt2 deficiency affects cellular bioenergetics and membrane lipid bilayer structure and stability. PCYT2 activity declines in ageing muscles of mice and humans, and adeno-associated virus-based delivery of PCYT2 ameliorates muscle weakness in Pcyt2-knockout and old mice, offering a therapy for individuals with a rare disease and muscle ageing. Thus, PCYT2 plays a fundamental and conserved role in vertebrate muscle health, linking PCYT2 and PCYT2-synthesized lipids to severe muscle dystrophy and ageing.

Crucial neuroprotective roles of the metabolite BH4 in dopaminergic neurons.

Dopa-responsive dystonia (DRD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) are movement disorders caused by the dysfunction of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. Identifying druggable pathways and biomarkers for guiding therapies is crucial due to the debilitating nature of these disorders. Recent genetic studies have identified variants of GTP cyclohydrolase-1 (GCH1), the rate-limiting enzyme in tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) synthesis, as causative for these movement disorders. Here, we show that genetic and pharmacological inhibition of BH4 synthesis in mice and human midbrain-like organoids accurately recapitulates motor, behavioral and biochemical characteristics of these human diseases, with severity of the phenotype correlating with extent of BH4 deficiency. We also show that BH4 deficiency increases sensitivities to several PD-related stressors in mice and PD human cells, resulting in worse behavioral and physiological outcomes. Conversely, genetic and pharmacological augmentation of BH4 protects mice from genetically- and chemically induced PD-related stressors. Importantly, increasing BH4 levels also protects primary cells from PD-affected individuals and human midbrain-like organoids (hMLOs) from these stressors. Mechanistically, BH4 not only serves as an essential cofactor for dopamine synthesis, but also independently regulates tyrosine hydroxylase levels, protects against ferroptosis, scavenges mitochondrial ROS, maintains neuronal excitability and promotes mitochondrial ATP production, thereby enhancing mitochondrial fitness and cellular respiration in multiple preclinical PD animal models, human dopaminergic midbrain-like organoids and primary cells from PD-affected individuals. Our findings pinpoint the BH4 pathway as a key metabolic program at the intersection of multiple protective mechanisms for the health and function of midbrain dopaminergic neurons, identifying it as a potential therapeutic target for PD.

The HUSH complex controls brain architecture and protocadherin fidelity.

The HUSH (human silencing hub) complex contains the H3K9me3 binding protein M-phase phosphoprotein 8 (MPP8) and recruits the histone methyltransferase SETDB1 as well as Microrchidia CW-type zinc finger protein 2 (MORC2). Functional and mechanistic studies of the HUSH complex have hitherto been centered around SETDB1 while the in vivo functions of MPP8 and MORC2 remain elusive. Here, we show that genetic inactivation of Mphosph8 or Morc2a in the nervous system of mice leads to increased brain size, altered brain architecture, and behavioral changes. Mechanistically, in both mouse brains and human cerebral organoids, MPP8 and MORC2 suppress the repetitive-like protocadherin gene cluster in an H3K9me3-dependent manner. Our data identify MPP8 and MORC2, previously linked to silencing of repetitive elements via the HUSH complex, as key epigenetic regulators of protocadherin expression in the nervous system and thereby brain development and neuronal individuality in mice and humans.

Anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects of bortezomib in various in vivo models.

Bortezomib (Velcade®) is a proteasome inhibitor that has been approved for the treatment of multiple myeloma and mantle cell lymphoma. It has been shown to inhibit the expression of cell adhesion molecules, co-stimulatory molecules, and NFκB activation, to deplete alloreactive T lymphocytes, and to decrease Th1 cytokine production. The anti-inflammatory effects of bortezomib were further investigated in this current set of studies. Systemic treatment with bortezomib was efficacious in the thioglycolate-induced MCP-1 production model, and the dinitrofluorobenzene-induced delayed-type hypersensitivity model. Psoriasis is an autoimmune disease that affects about 2% of the world population. Many treatments have been reported with varying degrees of efficacy. A topical bortezomib formulation was developed to minimize systemic exposure. Its tolerability was investigated in a topical imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasis model. Daily application of IMQ on mouse skin induced inflamed scaly skin lesions resembling plaque-type psoriasis. Fatality was observed in the 1-mg/ml dose group. At 0.1 and 0.01 mg/ml, bortezomib potentiated IMQ-induced erythema, scaling, skin thickening, and caused necrotic lesions. Lower doses had no effect on the clinical observations. Histologically, bortezomib dose-dependently increased parakeratosis, hyperkeratosis, acanthosis, and inflammatory cell infiltration. This study demonstrated that topical bortezomib is not suitable for the treatment of psoriasis.

High-Resolution Episcopic Microscopy (HREM) in Multimodal Imaging Approaches.

High-resolution episcopic microscopy (HREM) is a three-dimensional (3D) episcopic imaging modality based on the acquisition of two-dimensional (2D) images from the cut surface of a block of tissue embedded in resin. Such images, acquired serially through the entire length/depth of the tissue block, are aligned and stacked for 3D reconstruction. HREM has proven to be specifically advantageous when integrated in correlative multimodal imaging (CMI) pipelines. CMI creates a composite and zoomable view of exactly the same specimen and region of interest by (sequentially) correlating two or more modalities. CMI combines complementary modalities to gain holistic structural, functional, and chemical information of the entire sample and place molecular details into their overall spatiotemporal multiscale context. HREM has an advantage over in vivo 3D imaging techniques on account of better histomorphologic resolution while simultaneously providing volume data. HREM also has certain advantages over ex vivo light microscopy modalities. The latter can provide better cellular resolution but usually covers a limited area or volume of tissue, with limited 3D structural context. HREM has predominantly filled a niche in the phenotyping of embryos and characterisation of anatomic developmental abnormalities in various species. Under the umbrella of CMI, when combined with histopathology in a mutually complementary manner, HREM could find wider application in additional nonclinical and translational areas. HREM, being a modified histology technique, could also be incorporated into specialised preclinical pathology workflows. This review will highlight HREM as a versatile imaging platform in CMI approaches and present its benefits and limitations.

The ubiquitin ligase HOIL-1L regulates immune responses by interacting with linear ubiquitin chains.

The Linear Ubiquitin Chain Assembly Complex (LUBAC), composed of HOIP, HOIL-1L, and SHARPIN, promotes tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-dependent NF-κB signaling in diverse cell types. HOIL-1L contains an Npl4 Zinc Finger (NZF) domain that specifically recognizes linear ubiquitin chains, but its physiological role in vivo has remained unclear. Here, we demonstrate that the HOIL-1L NZF domain has important regulatory functions in inflammation and immune responses in mice. We generated knockin mice (Hoil-1l T201A;R208A/T201A;R208A ) expressing a HOIL-1L NZF mutant and observed attenuated responses to TNF- and LPS-induced shock, including prolonged survival, stabilized body temperature, reduced cytokine production, and liver damage markers. Cells derived from Hoil-1l T201A;R208A/T201A;R208A mice show reduced TNF-dependent NF-κB activation and incomplete recruitment of HOIL-1L into TNF Receptor (TNFR) Complex I. We further show that HOIL-1L NZF cooperates with SHARPIN to prevent TNFR-dependent skin inflammation. Collectively, our data suggest that linear ubiquitin-chain binding by HOIL-1L regulates immune responses and inflammation in vivo.

Multimodality imaging beyond CLEM: Showcases of combined in-vivo preclinical imaging and ex-vivo microscopy to detect murine mural vascular lesions.

In imaging, penetration depth comes at the expense of lateral resolution, which restricts the scope of 3D in-vivo imaging of small animals at micrometer resolution. Bioimaging will need to expand beyond correlative light and electron microscopy (CLEM) approaches to combine insights about in-vivo dynamics in a physiologically relevant 3D environment with ex-vivo information at micrometer resolution (or beyond) within the spatial, structural and biochemical contexts. Our report demonstrates the immense potential for biomedical discovery and diagnosis made available by bridging preclinical in-vivo imaging with ex-vivo biological microscopy to zoom in from the whole organism to individual structures and by adding localized spectroscopic information to structural and functional information. We showcase the use of two novel imaging pipelines to zoom into mural lesions (occlusions/hyperplasia and micro-calcifications) in murine vasculature in a truly correlative manner, that is using exactly the same animal for all integrated imaging modalities. This correlated multimodality imaging (CMI) approach includes well-established technologies such as Positron Emission Tomography (microPET), Autoradiography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (microMRI) and Computed Tomography (microCT), and imaging approaches that are more novel in the biomedical setting, such as X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (microXRF) and High Resolution Episcopic Microscopy (HREM). Although the current pipelines are focused on mural lesions, they would also be beneficial in preclinical and clinical investigations of vascular diseases in general.

Cross-Modality Imaging of Murine Tumor Vasculature-a Feasibility Study.

Tumor vasculature and angiogenesis play a crucial role in tumor progression. Their visualization is therefore of utmost importance to the community. In this proof-of-principle study, we have established a novel cross-modality imaging (CMI) pipeline to characterize exactly the same murine tumors across scales and penetration depths, using orthotopic models of melanoma cancer. This allowed the acquisition of a comprehensive set of vascular parameters for a single tumor. The workflow visualizes capillaries at different length scales, puts them into the context of the overall tumor vessel network and allows quantification and comparison of vessel densities and morphologies by different modalities. The workflow adds information about hypoxia and blood flow rates. The CMI approach includes well-established technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), computed tomography (CT), and ultrasound (US), and modalities that are recent entrants into preclinical discovery such as optical coherence tomography (OCT) and high-resolution episcopic microscopy (HREM). This novel CMI platform establishes the feasibility of combining these technologies using an extensive image processing pipeline. Despite the challenges pertaining to the integration of microscopic and macroscopic data across spatial resolutions, we also established an open-source pipeline for the semi-automated co-registration of the diverse multiscale datasets, which enables truly correlative vascular imaging. Although focused on tumor vasculature, our CMI platform can be used to tackle a multitude of research questions in cancer biology.

Parameters for establishing humanized mouse models to study human immunity: analysis of human hematopoietic stem cell engraftment in three immunodeficient strains of mice bearing the IL2rgamma(null) mutation.

"Humanized" mouse models created by engraftment of immunodeficient mice with human hematolymphoid cells or tissues are an emerging technology with broad appeal across multiple biomedical disciplines. However, investigators wishing to utilize humanized mice with engrafted functional human immune systems are faced with a myriad of variables to consider. In this study, we analyze HSC engraftment methodologies using three immunodeficient mouse strains harboring the IL2rgamma(null) mutation; NOD-scid IL2rgamma(null), NOD-Rag1(null) IL2rgamma(null), and BALB/c-Rag1(null) IL2rgamma(null) mice. Strategies compared engraftment of human HSC derived from umbilical cord blood following intravenous injection into adult mice and intracardiac and intrahepatic injection into newborn mice. We observed that newborn recipients exhibited enhanced engraftment as compared to adult recipients. Irrespective of the protocol or age of recipient, both immunodeficient NOD strains support enhanced hematopoietic cell engraftment as compared to the BALB/c strain. Our data define key parameters for establishing humanized mouse models to study human immunity.

HACE1 Prevents Lung Carcinogenesis via Inhibition of RAC-Family GTPases.

HACE1 is an E3 ubiquitin ligase with important roles in tumor biology and tissue homeostasis. Loss or mutation of HACE1 has been associated with the occurrence of a variety of neoplasms, but the underlying mechanisms have not been defined yet. Here, we report that HACE1 is frequently mutated in human lung cancer. In mice, loss of Hace1 led to enhanced progression of KRasG12D -driven lung tumors. Additional ablation of the oncogenic GTPase Rac1 partially reduced progression of Hace1-/- lung tumors. RAC2, a novel ubiquitylation target of HACE1, could compensate for the absence of its homolog RAC1 in Hace1-deficient, but not in HACE1-sufficient tumors. Accordingly, ablation of both Rac1 and Rac2 fully averted the increased progression of KRasG12D -driven lung tumors in Hace1-/- mice. In patients with lung cancer, increased expression of HACE1 correlated with reduced levels of RAC1 and RAC2 and prolonged survival, whereas elevated expression of RAC1 and RAC2 was associated with poor prognosis. This work defines HACE1 as a crucial regulator of the oncogenic activity of RAC-family GTPases in lung cancer development. SIGNIFICANCE: These findings reveal that mutation of the tumor suppressor HACE1 disrupts its role as a regulator of the oncogenic activity of RAC-family GTPases in human and murine lung cancer. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT: http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/canres/80/14/3009/F1.large.jpg.

Apelin inhibition prevents resistance and metastasis associated with anti-angiogenic therapy.

Angiogenesis is a hallmark of cancer, promoting growth and metastasis. Anti-angiogenic treatment has limited efficacy due to therapy-induced blood vessel alterations, often followed by local hypoxia, tumor adaptation, progression, and metastasis. It is therefore paramount to overcome therapy-induced resistance. We show that Apelin inhibition potently remodels the tumor microenvironment, reducing angiogenesis, and effectively blunting tumor growth. Functionally, targeting Apelin improves vessel function and reduces polymorphonuclear myeloid-derived suppressor cell infiltration. Importantly, in mammary and lung cancer, Apelin prevents resistance to anti-angiogenic receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) inhibitor therapy, reducing growth and angiogenesis in lung and breast cancer models without increased hypoxia in the tumor microenvironment. Apelin blockage also prevents RTK inhibitor-induced metastases, and high Apelin levels correlate with poor prognosis of anti-angiogenic therapy patients. These data identify a druggable anti-angiogenic drug target that reduces tumor blood vessel densities and normalizes the tumor vasculature to decrease metastases.