Application of the European Test of Olfactory Capabilities in patients with olfactory impairment.

A central issue in olfaction concerns the characterization of loss of olfactory function: partial (hyposmia) or total (anosmia). This paper reports the application in a clinical setting of the European Test of Olfactory Capabilities (ETOC), combining odor detection and identification. The study included three phases. In phase 1, anosmics, hyposmics and controls were tested with the 16-items version of the ETOC. In phase 2, a short version of the ETOC was developed: patients with and controls without olfactory impairment were tested on a 6-items ETOC. In phase 3, to predict olfactory impairments in new individuals, the 16-items ETOC was administered on samples of young and older adults, and the 6-items version was applied in samples of young, elderly participants and Alzheimer patients. In phase 1, linear discriminant analysis (LDA) of ETOC scores classified patients and controls with 87.5 % accuracy. In phase 2, LDA provided 84 % correct classification. Results of phase 3 revealed: (1) 16-items ETOC: whereas in young adults, 10 % were classified as hyposmic and 90 % as normosmic, in elderly, 1 % were classified as anosmic, 39 % hyposmic and 60 % normosmic; (2) 6-items ETOC: 15 % of the young adults were classified as having olfactory impairment, compared to 28 % in the older group and 83 % in Alzheimer patients. In conclusion, the ETOC enables characterizing the prevalence of olfactory impairment in young subjects and in normal and pathological aging. Whereas the 16-items ETOC is more discriminant, the short ETOC may provide a fast (5-10 min) tool to assess olfaction in clinical settings.

Sweet taste exposure and the subsequent acceptance and preference for sweet taste in the diet: systematic review of the published literature.

Background: There are consistent, evidence-based global public health recommendations to reduce intakes of free sugars. However, the corresponding evidence for recommending reduced exposure to sweetness is less clear. Objective: Our aim was to identify and review the published evidence investigating the impact of dietary exposure to sweet-tasting foods or beverages on the subsequent generalized acceptance, preference, or choice of sweet foods and beverages in the diet. Design: Systematic searches were conducted to identify all studies testing relations of variation in exposure to sweetness through foods and beverages with subsequent variation in the generalized acceptance, preference, or choice of sweetened foods or beverages, in humans aged >6 mo. Results: Twenty-one studies met our inclusion criteria, comprising 7 population cohort studies involving 2320 children and 14 controlled trials involving 1113 individuals. These studies were heterogeneous in study design, population, exposure, and outcomes measured, and few were explicitly designed to address our research question. The findings from these were inconsistent. We found equivocal evidence from population cohort studies. The evidence from controlled studies suggests that a higher sweet taste exposure tends to lead to reduced preferences for sweetness in the shorter term, but very limited effects were found in the longer term. Conclusions: A small and heterogeneous body of research currently has considered the impact of varying exposure to sweet taste on subsequent generalized sweet taste preferences, and this evidence is equivocal regarding the presence and possible direction of a relation. Future work should focus on adequately powered studies with well-characterized exposures of sufficient duration. This review was registered with PROSPERO as CRD42016051840, 24 November 2016.

Three-factor eating questionnaire and the use and liking of sweet and fat among dieters.

The aim of this study was to examine whether the cognitive restraint, disinhibition and hunger factors of the three-factor eating questionnaire (TFEQ) can differentiate between low and high use, desired use and liking of various sugar- and fat-containing foods. A questionnaire with items on 44 foods and the TFEQ was obtained from 253 women taking part in weight reduction program. Principal component analysis was used to divide the foods into ten groups by their reported usage. The cognitive restraint factor was related to the reported use of some food groups such as fruit-based sweet foods, butter, margarine and regular-fat cheese, but not to the desired use or liking. High disinhibition and hunger scores were related to frequency of reported and desired use and to liking of several food groups (e.g., sweets, pastries served with coffee, fruit-based sweet foods, butter and margarine). Those scoring highest on cognitive restraint and lowest on disinhibition and hunger reported using all food groups less frequently than those with the lowest scores on restraint and the highest scores on disinhibition and hunger, except low-fat cheese and yogurt. These groups also differed in the desired use and liking of most sweet foods.

Can sodium contents of foods be reduced by adding flavors? Studies with beef broth.

Two experiments were conducted to investigate what effect the addition of spicy/herbal flavoring (allspice, marjoram, onion) and monosodium glutamate would have on the preferred level of saltiness in beef broth. First, subjects (N = 34) were asked to prepare ad lib mixtures according to their own preference of pairs of unsalted and salted broths: each pair was flavored with varying combinations of the four flavorants. Regardless of the flavor combination, the subsequent chemical analysis of mixtures indicated identical contents of NaCl (mean value 1.1% for all four combinations). Second, subjects (N = 38) rated the pleasantness of broths with 0.5, 0.8, 1.1, 1.4, and 1.7% NaCl under three sets of conditions: unflavored, flavored with allspice, majoram, onion and monosodium glutamate, and flavored with glutamate only. All samples but the one with a NaCl content of 0.5% were rated equally pleasant; the latter was rated somewhat less pleasant. The results provide no support for the widely held belief that other flavors, e.g., spices or herbs, might compensate for lower saltiness of foods.

Effect of umami taste on pleasantness of low-salt soups during repeated testing.

In the present study the effects of the umami substances, monosodium glutamate (0.2%) and 5'-ribonucleotides (0.05%), on the acceptance of low-salt soups in two groups of subjects, one with low-salt (n = 21) and the other with high-salt (n = 23) preferences were assessed. The groups were presented with soups containing 0.3% sodium chloride (low-salt group) and 0.5% sodium chloride (high-salt group). The subjects three times consumed leek-potato or minestrone soup with umami and three times the other soup without umami during six sessions over 5 weeks (sessions 2-7). In addition they tasted these and two other soups (lentil and mushroom soup) during sessions 1 and 8, during which they evaluated the pleasantness, taste intensity, and ideal saltiness of the soups with and without added umami. These ratings were higher when soups contained umami in both the low- and high-salt groups, and they remained higher regardless of which of the soups served for lunch contained umami. The low- and high-salt groups did not differ in pleasantness ratings, although the former rated the taste intensity of their soups higher and ideal saltiness closer to the ideal than did the latter. The pleasantness ratings of soups without umami were significantly lower at the end of the study than at the beginning, whereas those of soups with umami remained unchanged. These data suggest that the pleasantness of reduced-salt foods could be increased by addition of appropriate flavors.

Changes in hedonic responses to sweet and fat in recently diagnosed non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients during diet therapy.

A study was undertaken to find out how the hedonic responses to, and reported liking and consumption of, sweet and fat foods change during the first months of diet therapy of recently diagnosed patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The patients were 12 women and 19 men aged 40-65 years. The methods used consisted of hedonic rating tests and summated scales which measured overall tendencies to like and consume fatty and sweet foods. These measurements were made three times at intervals of six weeks. At the same time clinical measurements, weight and glycaemic control were recorded. Hedonic ratings of sweet juices decreased during three months of therapy, but hedonic responses to fatty food items (cheese, milk) remained practically unchanged. After three months of diet therapy the diabetic subjects liked fatty and sweet foods less and consumed them less frequently, which was the aim of the diet therapy. At the same time their metabolic control improved markedly, too.

Fermented soymilk with a monoculture of Lactococcus lactis.

Lactococcus lactis strain (LL3) isolated from mothers' milk was used to produce fermented soymilk. The strain survived at levels of over 7 log cfu/ml for 3 weeks in the fermented soymilk. A consumer survey was carried out to compare the acceptability of the fermented product with a similar product made with L. lactis ATCC11545 originally isolated from cow's milk. Blind samples produced by fermentation with the two strains were rated equally attractive, whereas information on the origin of the strains significantly enhanced the pleasantness of the fermented soymilk.

Timing of intensity perception of a polar vs nonpolar aroma compound in the presence of added vegetable fat in milk.

Differences in timing of intensity perception of the retronasal aroma of a nonpolar (linalool) vs polar (diacetyl) compound when the matrix (milk) fat content was varied (0%, 1%, 5%, or 10% rapeseed oil) were studied using a time-intensity method. Aromas were also evaluated by orthonasal means and with static headspace gas chromatography (GC). With increasing fat content, linalool was considerably retained in the matrix, while the release of diacetyl was not affected. As little as 1% fat was sufficient to significantly reduce the volatility (GC results) of linalool and orthonasal, but not retronasal, intensity. No effect of fat was found on the rate of linalool release. The linalool perception of the sample containing the greatest amount of fat lasted a shorter time than that of the samples containing less fat; however, the decrease in intensity perception was steeper in lower fat samples. The observed temporal release of linalool partly challenges the often-repeated statement that reduction of fat results in a more rapid and shorter aroma release.

Perception and pleasantness of a food with varying odor and flavor among the elderly and young.

Aging diminishes chemosensory functioning, in particular the sense of smell, thus possibly decreasing the enjoyment from food. We examined the effect of age on ortho- and retronasal perception and on pleasantness ratings of cream cheese in which 3 levels of food aromas (vanilla or basil) were combined, respectively, with 3 levels of sucrose or NaCl. The elderly (n=59, 60-85 years) and young (n=39, 21-38 years) subjects were also tested for olfactory identification ability. As expected, the young differentiated odor intensities better than the elderly. The sucrose and NaCl levels affected overall flavor intensity and pleasantness similarly in both age groups. The flavor of vanilla, but not that of basil, was favored by the elderly, suggesting that strong flavor in an appropriate context can improve the hedonic quality. The odor identification declined with age in the elderly and on average, it was lower in the elderly than in the young. Ability to identify odors was not associated with ratings of odor intensities.

Applicability of the Scandinavian Odor Identification Test: a Finnish-Swedish comparison.

The possibility of using the Scandinavian Odor Identification Test (SOIT), developed for clinical purposes for use with Swedish subjects, for assessment of another northern European population was studied by comparing test performance between 127 Finnish and 127 Swedish participants, who were matched for age (19-85 years) and gender. The results showed very similar performance between countries and demonstrated, as expected, age- and gender-related differences in performance. Test-retest reliability was as good in Finnish as in Swedish subgroups of participants and no significant difference between countries in terms of diagnostic distribution (normosmia, hyposmia and anosmia) was found when using existing cut-off scores. The findings suggest that the SOIT, with its diagnostic cut-off scores, is reliable and valid for use with Finnish populations.

Selection of milks with varying fat contents and related overall liking, attitudes, norms and intentions.

A total of 236 subjects who used non-fat (0%), low-fat (1.9%) or regular-fat (3.9%) milk as their principal milk source participated in a hedonic test and in a survey in which overall liking, attitudes, norms and buying intentions of the three milk types as well as aspects of their consumption and shifts among them were studied. The subjects strongly preferred their own milk type in hedonic tests, in survey ratings of liking, and in their beliefs concerning sensory quality, nutritional and health value and suitability for various purposes. All the user groups indicated a reluctance to shift from the usual milk type but were, however, aware of nutritional recommendations as to which milk type they should use. The Fishbein model of attitudes, norms and behaviour explained 18-47% of the variation in buying intentions or selections of the milk types. The predictive power of the attitudinal component was greater than that of the norm component. Insertion of survey ratings of overall liking into the regression model slightly improved its predictive power (up to 25-48%), but this component was highly correlated with the attitude variable. It is concluded that the use of a certain milk type is highly supported by a consistent belief structure and positive attributions, which defend the established behaviour against any pressure to shift to another type of milk.

Pleasantness ratings and consumption of open sandwiches with varying NaCl and acid contents.

The objective was to compare taste-and-spit pleasantness ratings of open sandwiches to ratings after ad libitum consumption. In the latter test, open sandwiches were ingested one at a time at a laboratory breakfast. Three rye breads of different acid and NaCl concentrations (non-sour + normal NaCl, sour + low NaCl, sour + normal NaCl) were evaluated with butter or margarine with two levels of NaCl (1 or 2 per cent). Subjects (N = 27) rated the samples more pleasant after consumption than in taste-and-spit tests. Mean pleasantness ratings by sample in taste-and-spit and postconsumption tests correlated with the amount of bread consumed (r = 0.63, r = 0.82, respectively). The taste-and-spit ratings of individual subjects correlated poorly with the amount of bread consumed, only three correlation coefficients out of 27 being significant. Taste-and-spit pleasantness ratings can perhaps be used to predict the average consumption of a product but not consumption by individual subjects. The laboratory tests should be developed further to reflect better food acceptability in natural conditions.

Consistency of liking and appropriateness ratings and their relation to consumption in a product test of ice cream.

The consistency of hedonic responses to three brands of vanilla ice cream over 5 weeks was examined using two procedures. Respondents (n = 40) came to the test after their usual lunch and rated their liking for ice creams side-by-side (three samples in one session) and after ad libitum consumption (one sample at a time). The quantity of ice cream consumed in ad libitum procedure was recorded. Respondents also assessed the appropriateness of the three samples of vanilla ice cream to ten usage situations, including "as a dessert" which was the context in the test situation. The consistency of hedonic responses was low over replicates (r = 0.03 to 0.48). In the side-by-side condition, only 48% of the liking responses in replicates were within one point (not at all = 1, extremely = 9), and 63% in the after-consumption condition. Some respondents ate more of all brands than other subjects did in both replicates, unrelated to differences in liking. The appropriateness ratings of brands were similar but the ratings of appropriateness "as a dessert" differentiated the brands. In the after-consumption condition the ratings of liking and appropriateness, together with consumption measures, appeared to be slightly more consistent at the individual level than those made in the side-by-side situation.

Effect of reduced-fat information on expected and actual hedonic and sensory ratings of sausage.

The effect of information about fat content on expected and actual sensory and hedonic ratings of regular- and reduced-fat Bologna sausages was studied using 115 young men. All the subjects rated the expected pleasantness, juiciness, saltiness and fattiness of "Bologna". Subsequently, a sub-group of subjects ("No information", N=54) rated the unlabelled samples after tasting. Another sub-group ("Information", N=61) rated the expected and actual pleasantness and attribute intensities of samples labelled as "Regular type of Bologna (20% fat)" and "Light Bologna (10% fat)". The samples were not rated significantly different by the "No information" group. In the "Information" group, "Light Bologna" was expected to be less fatty, less salty, less juicy and less pleasant than "Regular type of Bologna". After tasting, saltiness and fattiness of "Light Bologna" were rated lower while pleasantness and juiciness of the samples were not significantly different. Actual saltiness and fattiness of "Light Bologna" were assimilated to the low expected intensities. Even that the hedonic ratings of "Light" and "Regular type of Bologna" differed only slightly, low expected pleasantness, juiciness and other attribute intensities imply that young men would not choose the product. Other information strategies might result in better acceptance by this target group.

Prediction of reported consumption of selected fat-containing foods.

A total of 100 American females (mean age = 20.8 years) completed a questionnaire, in which their beliefs, evaluations, liking and consumption (frequency, consumption compared to others, intention to consume) of milk, cheese, ice cream, chocolate and "high-fat foods" were measured. For the design and analysis, the basic frame of reference was the Fishbein-Ajzen model of reasoned action, but the final analyses were carried out with stepwise multiple regression analysis. In addition to the components of the Fishbein-Ajzen model, beliefs and evaluations were used as independent variables. On the average, subjects reported liking all the products but not "high-fat foods", and thought that milk and cheese were "good for you" whereas the remaining items were "bad for you". Principal component analysis for beliefs revealed factors related to pleasantness/benefit aspects, to health and weight concern and to the "functionality" of the foods. In stepwise multiple regression analyses, liking was the predominant predictor of reported consumption for all the foods, but various belief factors, particularly those related to concern with weight, also significantly predicted consumption. Social factors played only a minor role. The multiple R's of the predictive functions varied from 0.49 to 0.74. The fact that all four foods studied elicited individual sets of beliefs and belief structures, and that none of them was rated similar to the generic "high-fat foods", emphasizes that consumers attach meaning to integrated food entities rather than to ingredients.

Garlic: a sensory pleasure or a social nuisance?

A total of 100 female and male shoppers in Helsinki were interviewed to evaluate beliefs, attitudes and norms concerning the consumption of garlic. In a subsequent postal questionnaire, the annoyance related to the smell of garlic, compared with other social odors, was also measured. The most frequent beliefs about garlic pertained to its good taste, unpleasant smell, and healthiness. Users and non-users showed distinctly different belief patterns. Sweat and alcohol were considered the most annoying social odors, and garlic and perfume/aftershave the least so. The Fishbein-Ajzen model, in which individual beliefs and their evaluations as well as subjective norms were used as predictors, explained 35-36% of the variation of the reported consumption and intention to use garlic. The predictive power of the model rose to 56-62% when past behavior was included as a third independent variable. Although the predictive power of attitudes was greater than that of subjective norms, the latter were also significant predictors. Thus, use of garlic is a somewhat unusual form of food-related behavior in that it is controlled by both attitudes and normative factors.

Flavor enhancement as a tool for increasing pleasantness and intake of a snack product among the elderly.

A yogurt-like fermented oat bran product, flavored with regular and heightened concentrations of red currant aroma, was tested in two tasting sessions (side-by-side) and, between these, in a six-day home-use (monadic testing daily, 3+3 packages of the snack) by the elderly (n=50, mean age 73.7, range 63-85 years) and the young (n=58, mean age 23.1, range 18-34 years). The subjects rated the odor and flavor intensity and pleasantness and also conducted an odor detection and identification test. In home-use, the subjects reported the quantity consumed, willingness to eat, buy or recommend the snack. The young outperformed the elderly in the olfactory test. The heightened aroma samples were initially rated as less pleasant by both age groups, but among the elderly, the ratings given to the two samples merged during exposure. For the young, the large difference in perceived odor and flavor intensities reflected marked differences in pleasantness, while the elderly were less responsive to intensity differences in their pleasantness ratings. Overall, both age groups ate less of the heightened aroma sample. Despite the impaired olfactory capabilities of the elderly, no clear indication of benefit of the enhanced flavor was found for either pleasantness or intake.

Predicting the intent to purchase unfamiliar and familiar cheeses: the effects of attitudes, expected liking and food neophobia.

The attitude model of the theory of reasoned action (TRA) has been applied mainly to predicting the choice of familiar foods; however, the choice of unfamiliar foods may be governed by distinct factors. In the present study, 92 females rated their attitudes and subjective norms about the purchase intentions of two familiar and two unfamiliar cheeses, and the expected and actual pleasantness of them. They also completed the food neophobia scale, which measures the tendency to avoid novel foods. Neophobic persons rated the attitudes and expected and actual taste pleasantness lower than neophilics for all cheeses, except for the most familiar, mild cheese. This suggests that food neophobia also indicates the tendency not only to avoid, but also to dislike novel foods. Before tasting, attitudes and subjective norms together predicted the intent to purchase familiar cheeses better (R2=0.54 and 0.58) than for novel cheeses (R2=0.24 and 0.35); thus, the basic TRA model was not as useful in predicting intent to purchase unfamiliar as familiar cheeses. The predictions especially for the novel cheeses were clearly improved by including expected pleasantness ratings in the model. The usefulness of the food neophobia score as an additional predictor was not clearly supported. Attitudes and subjective norms measured before tasting were poor predictors of purchase intents after tasting, which implies the importance of taste and direct product experience in food choice.

Recalling sweet taste intensities in the presence and absence of other tastes.

Memory for sweet taste intensities in different media during 125 h was investigated using three concentrations (w/w) of sucrose: 4.21% (0.125 M), 8.28% (0.25 M) and 16.06% (0.5 M). Sucrose was dissolved in four media [water with no tastant and water with 0.73% (0.125 M) sodium chloride, 0.04% (0.002 M) citric acid and 0.04% (0.002 M) caffeine] as standard stimuli. Subjects (n = 39) were assigned into four groups, each group performing the memory task in one medium only. After tasting each standard the subjects reproduced the subjective taste intensity immediately and after 12 min and 1, 5, 25 and 125 h by mixing portions of low (0%) and high (29.75%; 1 M) concentrations (w/w) of sucrose and by tasting and retasting (ad libitum procedure). The produced sucrose concentrations increased significantly from the first session to the 125 h time interval. There was a significant difference between immediately reproduced standard concentrations and concentrations produced after all time intervals. Relative differences from standard (delta i/i) differed only between concentrations produced immediately and after 125 h time interval. The low (4.21%) concentration showed larger differences from standard than the high (16.06%) concentration. The added tastant had no effect on the results.