A systematic review of food loss and waste in China: Quantity, impacts and mediators.

Although food loss and waste (FL&W) is high on China's national policy agenda, there is still little scientific information published about how much FL&W exists in China, what its impacts are, and what needs to be done to reduce it. Furthermore, what is known about FL&W across the various hotspots of China's food supply chain is not accessible in one place due to the tendency of scholars to focus on one part of the food chain depending on their disciplinary backgrounds, thereby making it difficult to obtain a 'comprehensive whole supply chain perspective'. Thus, this review provides an interdisciplinary collation of what is already known about FL&W in China. A systematic review of both English and Chinese databases followed PRISMA guidelines further complemented with a qualitative content analysis process uncovered 57 articles. The view revealed confounding factors such as an inconsistency of the definitions and calculation methods used to measure FL&W, and research gaps such as a lack of focus on the behavioral factors pertaining to waste, and the limited range of social innovations studied to reduce it. Thus, this review will help in the development of research agendas designed to advance efforts in this field.

Expectancy versus experience - Comparing Portion-Size-Effect during pre-meal planning and actual intake.

Research on eating behaviour has confirmed that portion size can substantially influence intake, a phenomenon known as the Portion-Size-Effect (PSE). Despite extensive research interest, there is limited understanding about the PSE on intended consumption (often measured by Expected Intake). It also remains unclear whether the presentation of food cues (e.g., Word Descriptors; Food Images) can modulate PSE during pre-meal planning. The current study addressed these questions by comparing PSE on intended versus actual consumption, with 62 participants based on a within-subject design. Participants firstly rated Expected Intake for a pasta dish of three sizes (400, 600, and 800 g), with each size presented in three different formats of food cues. The participants' actual pasta intake with the three portion sizes was tested in three ad libitum sessions over 7 weeks. The results suggested that Expected Intake increases as portion size becomes larger, following a nearly linear relationship. In comparison, the Actual Intake had a smaller increment after the presented portion size exceeded the 'appropriate' range. Relating to these results, the pre-meal PSE was found to be comparable to the actual PSE with moderate portion sizes (i.e., 600 g-400 g), but significantly stronger than the actual effect with large portion sizes. Overall, our data support the hypothesis that portion size can have a stronger influence on meal planning than actual food intake, and show that the format of food cues has considerable influence on Expected Intake. Studies of pre-meal planning should carefully consider the role of portion sizes and food cues on Expected Intake.

Gauging attitudes and behaviours: Meat consumption and potential reduction.

The present study focused on adding to the understanding of meat consumption and potential drivers for its reduction in New Zealand. Using the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and the recently developed Meat-Attachment Questionnaire (MAQ), this study investigated New Zealand consumers' attitudes, motivations and behaviours in regards to meat consumption. Results derive from a questionnaire sent across New Zealand in March 2017, in which 841 responses were obtained from representative consumer panels. Consumer awareness of the severity of meat's environmental impacts was found to be quite low in comparison to other sustainable food behaviours. Motivations for reduction seem to shift across consumer groups, with different considerations rising and falling in importance depending on current meat consumption habits. Among the TPB components, only attitudes were found to accurately and consistently predict willingness and intentions to reduce personal meat intake, while both attitudes and subjective norms predicted agreement with proposed structural measures that would promote meat reduction and/or plant-based food consumption. In addition, the MAQ was found to provide explanatory power above and beyond that of the TPB components alone and this research supports its use as a tool to further understand meat consumption and potential motivations for reduction. The authors believe these results could be useful for governments or organizations wishing to implement meat reduction strategies, as well as providing a stepping stone for further research inquiry into motivations behind meat consumption and its potential reduction.

The role of personal values in Chinese consumers' food consumption decisions. A case study of healthy drinks.

Differences in culture, language, and behavior between Chinese and Western consumers make entering the Chinese market a challenge. Chinese consumers may desire similar product features (e.g. brand name, quality, and flavor) to Western consumers but the value that consumers attach to the same product may differ cross-nationally. Besides values, an understanding of desired product attributes and the consequences linking to these values is also important. To the authors' knowledge, there is no published scientific research that investigates how personal values influence Chinese consumers' food consumption decisions. The aim of this research was to identify the links among product attributes, consequences of these attributes, and personal values associated with healthy drink consumption decisions within the Chinese market. Specifically, this research employed means-end chain theory and used association pattern technique (APT) as the main data collection technique to identify these links. Focus groups (n=6) were held in Hangzhou, China to identify the important attributes and consequences involved in the consumption decisions of healthy drinks. These attributes and consequences along with Schwartz's 10 basic values were used to construct the matrices included in the APT survey. A total of 600 APT surveys were administered in six different companies in Hangzhou, with 570 returned. Construction of the hierarchical value map (HVM) identified four of Schwartz's personal values influencing Chinese consumers' healthy drink consumption decisions: security, hedonism, benevolence, and self-direction. Food safety was the foremost concern for Chinese consumers when choosing healthy drinks. Chinese consumers also sought a good tasting and nutritious drink that was good value for money. Results from this study provide food marketers with an in-depth understanding of Chinese consumers' healthy drink consumption decisions. Implications and recommendations are provided that will assist food marketers to effectively enact marketing strategies in China.

Understanding the Needs of Food-Allergic Adults.

Food allergies are a growing issue, yet society's understanding of how individuals' lives are affected is limited. We conducted four focus groups with food-allergic adults in New Zealand to gain an in-depth understanding of the issues that impacted their quality of life. Key themes identified included allergen-free eating issues, health care system issues, costs of having a food allergy, effects on well-being, external influences (e.g., others' lack of awareness), and internal influences (personal growth and adaptation). The unmet needs of food-allergic adults led to risk taking, increased stress, and social isolation. A lack of awareness in others (including medical professionals, food service providers, and the general public) had a negative impact, suggesting that an intervention targeting awareness would be beneficial. Adaptation, particularly in terms of assertiveness and organizational skills, was important for coping, so we suggest training in these skills be made available for food-allergic patients.

Food Technology Neophobia Scales in cross-national context: Consumers' acceptance of food technologies between Chinese and New Zealand.

An increasing number of novel food technologies have been developed to meet consumers' growing desire for safe and high-quality foods. However, consumers can be cautious of novel food technologies, and their acceptance cannot be guaranteed. Food Technology Neophobia Scales (FTNS) have been proven to be an effective tool to predict consumers' behavior toward novel food technologies in a range of individual countries, but not for cross-national contexts. To fill the gap, this study designed a survey involving 604 Chinese and 614 New Zealand respondents, investigating the influence of consumers' food technology neophobia (FTN) on their acceptance of food technologies. Chinese respondents' FTNS score (50.62) was lower than that of New Zealand respondents (55.02), which was in line with the finding that Chinese respondents' acceptance of all tested food technologies was higher than New Zealand respondents (0.34-0.86 in a Likert-7 scale). Chinese respondents' acceptance was determined by their perception of benefits, whereas New Zealand respondents were influenced by their perception of both benefits and risks. The findings conclude that FTNS is a valid tool to reflect consumers' acceptance of novel food technologies in cross-national contexts, although the influence of FTN varies among consumers from different countries. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: China has the largest food market, and New Zealand is a leading food exporter. Understanding their consumers' acceptance of and attitudes toward food technologies will help food companies implement appropriate strategies in developing and using novel technologies. Because FTNS first was constructed in 2008, it has been applied in Australia, Italy, Canada, Finland, Korea, China, Chile, Brazil, and Uganda; the findings of this study will allow these individual studies on FTNS to better connect, help food companies predict consumer acceptance of food technologies in the global market, and help them identify early adopters of novel food technologies in new food markets.

Consumer acceptance of upcycled craft beer: a New Zealand case study.

Upcycled foods are created from surplus food, edible food waste and by-products. Food and beverage brands are launching upcycled foods and promoting their product to consumers. Little is known about how consumers respond to upcycled foods, nor how these products can be most effectively promoted. To better understand marketing strategies for upcycled foods, two studies were conducted, one online (n = 300) and one in retail stores (n = 65), in New Zealand to examine differences in consumer sentiment toward upcycled beer. In both studies, environmental benefits were identified as the most important benefits of upcycled foods and information provision on pack and online were important promotional strategies. Consumers reported greater awareness and acceptance of upcycled food in-store, yet raised concerns relating to taste and price. Only 31% of participants surveyed in-store associated 'no negatives' with upcycled foods compared with 47% of consumers surveyed online. These findings help differentiate a potential promotion strategy for upcycled foods.

The Application of Biometric Approaches in Agri-Food Marketing: A Systematic Literature Review.

A challenge in social marketing studies is the cognitive biases in consumers' conscious and self-reported responses. To help address this concern, biometric techniques have been developed to obtain data from consumers' implicit and non-verbal responses. A systematic literature review was conducted to explore biometric applications' role in agri-food marketing to provide an integrated overview of this topic. A total of 55 original research articles and four review articles were identified, classified, and reviewed. It was found that there is a steady growth in the number of studies applying biometric approaches, with eye-tracking being the dominant method used to investigate consumers' perceptions in the last decade. Most of the studies reviewed were conducted in Europe or the USA. Other biometric techniques used included facial expressions, heart rate, body temperature, and skin conductance. A wide range of scenarios concerning consumers' purchase and consumption behaviour for agri-food products have been investigated using biometric-based techniques, indicating their broad applicability. Our findings suggest that biometric techniques are expanding for researchers in agri-food marketing, benefiting both academia and industry.

Chinese Consumers' Acceptance of Novel Technologies Designed To Control Foodborne Bacteria.

ABSTRACT: Chinese consumers (n = 604) were asked three times to rate their acceptance of traditional thermal processing and several newer technologies (high pressure processing, irradiation, bacteriophages, antimicrobial packaging, pulsed electric fields, and rinsing meat carcasses with antimicrobial solutions) designed to control foodborne bacteria in food (i) based on their existing knowledge, (ii) after the provision of information about L. monocytogenes, and (iii) after further reading a brief description of the technology. Thermal processing (6.00 of 7 on Likert scale) and high pressure processing (5.73 of 7) were rated the most acceptable technologies, and rinsing with antimicrobial solutions (4.43 of 7) was rated the least acceptable technology. Information outlining the benefits of a technology had a larger positive effect on acceptance of every novel technology discussed (increases of 0.14 to 0.49 units depending on the technology) than information about L. monocytogenes and a brief description of the technology. This research has shown that providing information about foodborne bacteria and a technology designed to control them will improve consumers' acceptance of the technology, with the provision of information being of most importance for technologies for which the consumers are less familiar. Chinese consumers accepted or rejected a food technology for a variety of reasons; however, consumers with a greater awareness of foodborne bacteria rated the acceptability of novel technologies designed to kill bacteria higher than those with a low awareness (0.56 to 1.71 units depending on the technology). The results of this research will be of benefit to food companies considering adopting novel technologies to control foodborne bacteria because they provide insights that will enable them to develop more effective communication and implementation strategies.

Upcycled foods: A nudge toward nutrition.

One of the aims of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) is to end hunger and ensure access by all people to safe, nutritious, and sufficient food all year round. An obvious synergy exists between the second SDG "Zero Hunger" and SDG target 12.3 which focuses on halving food waste and reducing food losses. In addition to helping improve global food security, reducing food waste provides financial and environmental benefits. Upcycling food is a technical solution for food waste reduction that retains the nutritional and financial value of food by-products. However, many of the upcycled foods produced are discretionary foods such as biscuits, crackers, and other snack food that are not part of a healthy dietary pattern, and should only be eaten sometimes in small amounts. Given the importance of ensuring a sustainable healthy diet, this paper discusses opportunities for upcycled food manufacturers to produce more nutritious products.

A Qualitative Study of Parental Perceptions of Baby Food Pouches: A Netnographic Analysis.

Globally, a recent phenomenon in complementary feeding is the use of squeezable baby food pouches. However, some health agencies have raised concerns about their possible long-term health effects. The aim of this study was to describe parental perceptions of the use of baby food pouches during complementary feeding (i.e., the transition from an entirely milk-based diet to solid foods) using a netnographic analysis of discussions on publicly available forums. In this study, the community was parents of young children. Six parenting forums were identified through a Google search using defined selection criteria. Discussion threads relating to baby food pouches were collected and imported into NVivo12 for thematic analysis via inductive reasoning. Perceptions of baby food pouches fell within two broad categories-benefits and concerns. The most commonly reported themes related to benefits were: convenience, health, baby enjoys, variety, and cost; whereas the most common concerns reported were: health, cost, lack of dietary exposure, dependence, and waste. Many parents reported both benefits and concerns. Once research has determined the long-term effect of using pouches on infants' health regarding eating habits, nutritional status, growth, and development, the findings of this study can inform educational strategies to either encourage or discourage their use.

The Implications of COVID-19 on Chinese Consumer Preferences for Lamb Meat.

This study assessed if Chinese consumer attitudes towards a range of lamb attributes (such as origin, food safety, appearance, taste, price), and their opinions of New Zealand lamb (9- and 7-point Likert scales, respectively), had changed since the outbreak COVID-19. The same survey was carried out in Shanghai and Beijing pre (December 2018) and post COVID-19 (November 2020), ~9 months after China's initial outbreak, with 500 and 523 consumers, respectively. From December 2018 to November 2020, there was an increase in the proportion of Chinese consumers purchasing red meat online or from a butcher, and cooking their lamb well-done. In contrast, there were minimal differences in Chinese consumer ratings between December 2018 and November 2020 for different lamb attributes and opinions of New Zealand lamb. Cluster analysis revealed that many consumers (140 in December 2018/376 in November 2020) used only a small portion of the high end of the scale when rating lamb attributes, resulting in little differences between the attributes. This study suggests COVID-19 has enhanced some food safety related behaviors but had little effect on Chinese opinions and preferences for New Zealand lamb attributes. It also highlights that survey design should be carefully considered when collecting responses from Chinese consumers.

A quantitative survey of consumer perceptions of smart food packaging in China.

This study quantified the acceptability of smart food packaging technologies and determined their associations with sociodemographic, attitudinal, and behavioral characteristics of consumers in China. Two quantitative surveys were conducted using an intercept method in Beijing with one for intelligent food packaging and the other for active food packaging. Chi-square tests of independence and contingency tables were used to determine the acceptability of smart food packaging and significant associations with multiple variables. Smart packaging was accepted by 56% of participants in both surveys. Marital status and employment status were associated with the acceptance of active packaging, while consumer interactions with current food packaging were associated with the acceptance of intelligent packaging. Acceptance of both active and intelligent packaging was associated with trust in multiple institutions. This study is the first to provide broad information about Chinese consumers' acceptance of smart packaging technologies for food products. Findings from this research can contribute to further detailed consumer studies in product-specific packaging designs.

Potential of Extracted Locusta Migratoria Protein Fractions as Value-Added Ingredients.

Although locusts can be sustainably produced and are nutrient rich, the thought of eating them can be hard to swallow for many consumers. This paper aims to investigate the nutritional composition of Locusta migratoria, including the properties of extracted locust protein, contributing to limited literature and product development opportunities for industry. Locusts sourced from Dunedin, New Zealand, contained a high amount of protein (50.79% dry weight) and fat (34.93%), which contained high amounts of omega-3 (15.64%), creating a desirably low omega-3/omega-6 ratio of 0.57. Three protein fractions including; insoluble locust fraction, soluble locust fraction, and a supernatant fraction were recovered following alkali isoelectric precipitation methodology. Initially, proteins were solubilised at pH 10 then precipitated out at the isoelectric point (pH 4). All fractions had significantly higher protein contents compared with the whole locust. The insoluble protein fraction represented 37.76% of the dry weight of protein recovered and was much lighter in colour and greener compared to other fractions. It also had the highest water and oil holding capacity of 5.17 mL/g and 7.31 mL/g, possibly due to larger particle size. The high supernatant yield (56.60%) and low soluble protein yield (9.83%) was unexpected and could be a result of experimental pH conditions chosen.

Using the Systems-Practice Framework to Understand Food Allergen Management Practices at College Catering Operations: A Qualitative Study.

BACKGROUND: The number of individuals with food allergies or intolerances attending catered university residential colleges is increasing, and safe dining options are required to minimize the risk of allergic reactions and food-induced death. OBJECTIVE: This qualitative research study sought to advance professional knowledge of the factors affecting allergen management practices, particularly pertaining to college foodservices. DESIGN: Three catered residential colleges affiliated with a major university in New Zealand were selected as research sites. The study used an ethnographic approach and systems-practice theory as a framework for data collection and organizing results. Data collection techniques included document analyses (3 hours per site), observations (6 to 8 hours per site), focus groups with foodservice workers (30 to 45 minutes per site, n=16), and interviews with foodservice managers (45 to 90 minutes per interview, n=5). Notes and transcripts were coded through the process of thematic analysis using NVivo for Mac software, version 11.1.1, to identify factors affecting allergen management practices. RESULTS: The main factors affecting allergen management practices at college foodservices included information provided by residents about dietary requirements; communication between residents and foodservice staff; systems for allergen management; attitude of foodservice staff; and college size. CONCLUSIONS: Detailed dietary information, effective communication with residents, sufficient resources, clarification of responsibilities, and thorough systems are required for staff to perform safe allergen management practices. Ultimately, successful implementation was predominantly determined by staff attitude. Foodservice managers are advised to identify motivators and address barriers of staff attitudes toward allergen management practices to promote successful implementation.

The Role of Personality in Daily Food Allergy Experiences.

Food allergies present numerous challenges to coping in everyday life. Even simple things like planning a lunch with a friend can be stressful for people with food allergies. But are some people more adversely impacted by having a food allergy than other people? This paper addressed this question by investigating whether individual differences in the Big Five personality traits (neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness) are related to food allergy-related problems in everyday life among adults with food allergies. Participants were 108 adults (85% female; mean age = 40.2; age range 18-87) with a physician-diagnosed food allergy [most commonly to gluten (54.6%), peanuts (21.3%), cow's milk (16.7%), and shellfish/seafood (16.7%)]. Participants completed an initial online survey that measured demographics, food allergy information, and personality traits using the Big Five Inventory (John et al., 1991). For 2 weeks, participants completed a daily online survey that queried the occurrence of 25 food allergy issues that day and participants' overall stress and mood that day. Neuroticism did not predict more frequent allergy issues or greater stress/poorer mood on days with more allergy issues. Instead, higher openness to experience predicted a range of issues including going hungry because there is no safe food available, problems finding suitable foods when grocery shopping, feeling anxious at social occasions involving food, being excluded, and feeling embarrassed and poorly understood about their food allergy. Conscientious people were less embarrassed or self-conscious about their food allergy, but they had more problems eating out, and their positive mood was more impaired by allergy issues than their less conscientious peers. Extraversion and agreeableness played minor roles. Personality testing can identify people that may have difficulty living with food allergies-such as those higher in openness to experience.

University foodservices' potential for providing environmental education to students.

AIMS: University foodservices are potentially well placed to foster environmental education in a non-classroom setting and so could have the power to benefit communities through producing environmentally literate graduates. Buy-in from foodservice staff is critical for realising this potential, so understanding what foodservice staff think about their foodservice engaging in the provision of environmental education is essential. The aim of this study was to identify the dominant perspectives held by university foodservice staff about the desirability and realities of fostering environmental education in their workplaces. METHODS: The study design integrated two phases: (i) 36 foodservice staff conducted a card-sorting activity that revealed four dominant viewpoints; (ii) 60 foodservice staff completed a survey where they identified with one of these viewpoints. The study was conducted in Dunedin, New Zealand. RESULTS: The four main perspectives were The 'Believer', the 'Relatively Positive Integrator', the 'Uncertain Contender' and the 'Sceptic'. All of the perspective groups, except for Sceptic, believed environmental education in their workplace was desirable. In the survey, 25% of the 60 participants self-identified with the Believer narrative, 40% with the Relatively Positive Integrator, 25% with the Uncertain Contender and 10% with the Sceptic. There were no significant differences between factors for sociodemographic characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: A paradigm shift in foodservice framework thinking could unlock the potential university foodservice has to assist universities whose strategic mission is to embed environmental education in both curricular and co-/extracurricula activities.

The Possibilities of Reducing Food Choice to Improve the Performance of College Foodservices.

BACKGROUND: College administrative and management leaders, foodservice personnel, and student residents value social, nutritional, financial, and environmental sustainability in their dining expectations. Menu choice reduction looks promising as a strategy to achieve these goals. However, foodservice research about dominant attitudes across these stakeholders is limited. OBJECTIVE: To identify qualitative views from all stakeholders about choice reduction to ensure that any changes to the meal service are not to the detriment of consumer satisfaction. DESIGN: A comprehensive list of 74 statements representing the spectrum of attitudes surrounding choice was generated by searching a variety of resources, including academic literature and Internet sites, and by conducting semistructured interviews with stakeholders. A final set of 42 statements resulted from researcher scrutiny for optimum balance, clarity, appropriateness, simplicity, and applicability. A new sample of participants was then asked to sort these 42 statements into a normal distribution grid from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree." PARTICIPANTS/SETTING: A purposive convenience sample of stakeholders (staff n=5 and residents n=4) was used to identify statements about choice reduction. A second sample of stakeholders (staff n=6 and residents n=29) were recruited to sort the final 42 statements. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Q methodology analysis techniques were used. This involved conducting a by-person factor analysis, using the centroid factor extraction method because of the permissiveness it allows for data exploration. A varimax factor rotation to enhance interpretability of the results identified shared viewpoints. RESULTS: Three dominant viewpoints toward the possibility of choice reduction in the meal service were identified. Factor 1 was "health driven" (in which healthiness was paramount). Factor 2 was "variety seekers" (in which choice had instrumental value). Factor 3 was "choice lovers" (in which choice had intrinsic value). CONCLUSIONS: Although participants could see a number of benefits of choice reduction, strong attitudinal barriers existed toward adopting choice reduction initiatives. These barriers need to be overcome to avoid dissatisfaction with the foodservice should choice reduction measures be implemented.

The stress of food allergy issues in daily life.

OBJECTIVE: Food allergies are a growing health concern, but their implications for daily psychological functioning are unknown. This micro-longitudinal study investigated the daily frequency of food allergy issues and how this related to experiences of stress, mood and physical energy. DESIGN: One hundred and eight adults with physician-diagnosed food allergies completed an initial Internet survey followed by a 2-week Internet daily diary survey. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The initial survey collected socio-demographic and food allergy information. The daily survey collected information about the participants' experiences of stress, mood, physical energy and food allergy issues during that day. RESULTS: Commonly experienced allergy issues included negative physical symptoms, higher food prices, anxiety about safety of food, trouble maintaining a healthy diet and anxiety/stress at social occasions. Furthermore, multilevel modelling analyses showed that stress and negative mood were significantly higher on days with more allergy issues. Older adults experienced lower positive mood and physical energy on days with more issues. CONCLUSION: This is the first study to incorporate near to real-time tracking to examine the frequency of food allergy issues and the implications for daily psychological functioning. Targeting the issues we identified could reduce stress in patients with food allergies and improve their overall quality of life.

Getting a taste for food waste: a mixed methods ethnographic study into hospital food waste before patient consumption conducted at three New Zealand foodservice facilities.

Foodservice organizations, particularly those in hospitals, are large producers of food waste. To date, research on waste in hospitals has focused primarily on plate waste and the affect of food waste on patient nutrition outcomes. Less focus has been placed on waste generation at the kitchen end of the hospital food system. We used a novel approach to understand reasons for hospital food waste before consumption and offer recommendations on waste minimization within foodservices. A mixed methods ethnographic research approach was adopted. Three New Zealand hospital foodservices were selected as research sites, all of which were contracted to an external foodservice provider. Data collection techniques included document analyses, observations, focus groups with kitchen staff, and one-on-one interviews with managers. Thematic analysis was conducted to generate common themes. Most food waste occurred during service and as a result of overproduction. Attitudes and habits of foodservice personnel were considered influential factors of waste generation. Implications of food waste were perceived differently by different levels of staff. Whereas managers raised discussion from a financial perspective, kitchen staff drew upon social implications. Organizational plans, controls, and use of pre-prepared ingredients assisted in waste minimization. An array of factors influenced waste generation in hospital foodservices. Exploring attitudes and practices of foodservice personnel allowed an understanding of reasons behind hospital food waste and ways in which it could be minimized. This study provides a foundation for further research on sustainable behavior within the wider foodservice sector and dietetics practice.