Food waste from restaurant sector - Characterization for biorefinery approach.

The aim of this study is the analysis of food waste (FW) composition from local catering services to assess potential biorefinery development. Moisture content of different FW samples showed that 27-47% (w/w) was organic material. Main components were lipids (25.7-33.2, w/w), starch (16.2-29.4%, w/w) and proteins (23.5-18.3%, w/w) on a dry basis. A metal profile with Na and Mg as main components, followed by trace elements, i.e. Zn or Fe, was also found in food waste samples. Statistical tests in combination with principal component analysis provides an efficient methodology to establish specific composition variations between FW from different catering services, while relating them to FW typology. The combination of chemical characterization with statistical study constitutes a promising decision-making tool for FW processing and valorization. The innovative methodology presented in this study provides systematic evaluation of FW composition and variability to allow selection of the most appropriate valorization paths.

Isolation, identification and screening of yeasts towards their ability to assimilate biodiesel-derived crude glycerol: microbial production of polyols, endopolysaccharides and lipid.

AIMS: To assess the ability of various newly isolated or belonging in official collections yeast strains to convert biodiesel-derived glycerol (Gly) into added-value compounds. METHODS AND RESULTS: Ten newly isolated yeast strains belonging to Debaryomyces sp., Naganishia uzbekistanensis, Rhodotorula sp. and Yarrowia lipolytica, isolated from fishes, metabolized Gly under nitrogen limitation. The aim of the study was to identify potential newly isolated microbial candidates that could produce single-cell oil (SCO), endopolysaccharides and polyols when these micro-organisms were grown on biodiesel-derived Gly. As controls producing SCO and endopolysaccharides were the strains Rhodotorula glutinis NRRL YB-252 and Cryptococcus curvatus NRRL Y-1511. At initial Gly (Gly0 ) ≈40 g l-1 , most strains presented remarkable dry cell weight (DCW) production, whereas Y. lipolytica and Debaryomyces sp. produced non-negligible quantities of mannitol and arabitol (Ara). Five strains were further cultivated at increasing Gly0 concentrations. Rhodotorula glutinis NRRL YB-252 produced 7·2 g l-1 of lipid (lipid in DCW value ≈38% w/w), whereas Debaryomyces sp. FMCC Y69 in batch-bioreactor experiment with Gly0 ≈80 g l-1 , produced 30-33 g l-1 of DCW and ~30 g l-1 of Ara. At shake-flasks with Gly0 ≈125 g l-1 , Ara of ~48 g l-1 (conversion yield of polyol on Gly consumed ≈0·62 g g-1 ) was achieved. Cellular lipids of all yeasts contained in variable concentrations oleic, palmitic, stearic and linoleic acids. CONCLUSIONS: Newly isolated, food-derived and non-previously studied yeast isolates converted biodiesel-derived Gly into several added-value metabolites. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Alternative ways of crude Gly valorization through yeast fermentations were provided and added-value compounds were synthesized.

Lipid production and characterization by Mortierella (Umbelopsis) isabellina cultivated on lignocellulosic sugars.

AIMS: To study and characterize the lipids produced by Mortierella (Umbelopsis) isabellina, during its growth on mixtures of glucose and xylose. METHODS AND RESULTS: Glucose and xylose were utilized as carbon sources, solely or in blends, under nitrogen-limited conditions, in batch-flask trials (initial sugars at 80 g l-1 ). Significant lipid production (maximum lipid 17·8 g l-1 ; lipid in DCW 61·0% w/w; lipid on glucose consumed 0·23 g g-1 ) occurred on glucose employed solely, while xylose concentration in the growth medium was conversely correlated with lipid accumulation. With increasing xylose concentrations into the blend, lipid storage decreased while xylitol in significant concentrations (up to 24 g l-1 ) was produced. Irrespective of the sugar blend employed, significant quantities of endopolysaccharides were detected in the first growth steps (in the presence of nitrogen into the medium or barely after its disappearance) while lipids were stored thereafter. Neutral lipids, mainly composed of triacylglycerols, were the main microbial lipid fraction. Phospholipids were quantified both through fractionation and subsequent gravimetric determination and also through determination of phosphorus, and it seemed that the second method was more accurate. Phospholipids were mainly composed of phosphatidylcholine and another nonidentified compound presumably being phosphatidyldimethylethanolamine. CONCLUSIONS: Mortierella isabellina is suitable to convert lignocellulosic sugars into lipids. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Differentiations between metabolism on xylose and glucose were reported. Moreover, this is one of the first reports indicating extensive analysis of microbial lipids produced by M. isabellina.

Biorefining of by-product streams from sunflower-based biodiesel production plants for integrated synthesis of microbial oil and value-added co-products.

This study focuses on the valorisation of crude glycerol and sunflower meal (SFM) from conventional biodiesel production plants for the separation of value-added co-products (antioxidant-rich extracts and protein isolate) and for enhancing biodiesel production through microbial oil synthesis. Microbial oil production was evaluated using three oleaginous yeast strains (Rhodosporidium toruloides, Lipomyces starkeyi and Cryptococcus curvatus) cultivated on crude glycerol and nutrient-rich hydrolysates derived from either whole SFM or SFM fractions that remained after separation of value-added co-products. Fed-batch bioreactor cultures with R. toruloides led to the production of 37.4gL(-1) of total dry weight with a microbial oil content of 51.3% (ww(-1)) when a biorefinery concept based on SFM fractionation was employed. The estimated biodiesel properties conformed with the limits set by the EN 14214 and ASTM D 6751 standards. The estimated cold filter plugging point (7.3-8.6°C) of the lipids produced by R. toruloides is closer to that of biodiesel derived from palm oil.

Lipid production by yeasts growing on biodiesel-derived crude glycerol: strain selection and impact of substrate concentration on the fermentation efficiency.

AIMS: To screen yeasts in relation to the potential to produce single cell oil (SCO) from biodiesel-derived glycerol and to enhance SCO production in Lipomyces starkeyi and Rhodosporidium toruloides yeasts. METHODS AND RESULTS: Yarrowia lipolytica, Cryptococcus curvatus, R. toruloides and L. starkeyi were grown in nitrogen-limited flask cultures. Yarrowia lipolytica strains produced citric acid and mannitol. Lipomyces starkeyi DSM 70296 and R. toruloides NRRL Y-27012 showed potential for SCO production, and were cultivated at increasing the initial glycerol concentrations with the initial nitrogen concentration remaining constant. Significant biomass and SCO production were reported even in cultures with high initial glycerol concentrations (i.e. 180 g l(-1) ). Lipid quantities of c. 12 g l(-1) (lipid in dry cell weight 35-40%) were obtained for both L. starkeyi and R. toruloides, quite high values compared with literature values for oleaginous micro-organisms growing on glycerol. However, these strains exhibited different kinetic profiles in the synthesis of intracellular polysaccharides. Lipomyces starkeyi produced a significant quantity of polysaccharides (c. 7 g l(-1) ). The yeast lipids contained mainly oleic and palmitic and to a lesser extent linoleic and stearic acids. CONCLUSIONS: Lipomyces starkeyi and R. toruloides are potential SCO producers from crude glycerol. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Very scarce numbers of reports have indicated the production of SCO by L. starkeyi and R. toruloides growing on glycerol. We report here that these yeasts are able efficiently to convert raw glycerol into SCO, while L. starkeyi also synthesizes intracellular polysaccharides in marked quantities.

Evaluating glucose and xylose as cosubstrates for lipid accumulation and γ-linolenic acid biosynthesis of Thamnidium elegans.

AIMS: To study the biotechnological production of lipids containing rich amounts of the medically and nutritionally important γ-linolenic acid (GLA), during cultivation of the Zygomycetes Thamnidium elegans, on mixtures of glucose and xylose, abundant sugars of lignocellulosic biomass. METHODS AND RESULTS: Glucose and xylose were utilized as carbon sources, solely or in mixtures, under nitrogen-limited conditions, in batch-flask or bioreactor cultures. On glucose, T. elegans produced 31.9 g l(-1) of biomass containing 15.0 g l(-1) lipid with significantly high GLA content (1014 mg l(-1)). Xylose was proved to be an adequate substrate for growth and lipid production. Additionally, xylitol secretion occurred when xylose was utilized as carbon source, solely or in mixtures with glucose. Batch-bioreactor trials on glucose yielded satisfactory lipid production, with rapid substrate consumption rates. Analysis of intracellular lipids showed that the highest GLA content was observed in early stationary growth phase, while the phospholipid fraction was the most unsaturated fraction of T. elegans. CONCLUSIONS: Thamnidium elegans represents a promising fungus for the successful valorization of sugar-based lignocellulosic residues into microbial lipids of high nutritional and pharmaceutical interest. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Xylitol production and cultivation in bioreactor trials is reported for the first time for T. elegans, while cultivation on xylose-based media resulted in high GLA production by this fungus.

Evaluation of by-products from the biodiesel industry as fermentation feedstock for poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) production by Cupriavidus necator.

Utilization of by-products from oilseed-based biodiesel production (crude glycerol, rapeseed meal hydrolysates) for microbial polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) production could lead to the replacement of expensive carbon sources, nutrient supplements and precursors for co-polymer production. Batch fermentations in shake flasks with varying amounts of free amino nitrogen led to the production of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (P(3HB-co-3HV)) with a 2.8-8% 3HV content. Fed-batch fermentations in shake flasks led to the production of 10.9g/L P(3HB-co-3HV) and a 55.6% P(3HB-co-3HV) content. NaCl concentrations between 2 and 6g/L gradually became inhibitory to bacterial growth and PHA formation, whereas in the case of K(2)SO(4), the inhibitory effect was observed only at concentrations higher than 20g/L. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and nuclear magnetic resonance ((13)C NMR) demonstrated that the incorporation of 3HV into the obtained P(3HB-co-3HV) lowered glass transition temperature, crystallinity and melting point as compared to polyhydroxybutyrate. Integrating PHA production in existing oilseed-based biodiesel plants could enhance the viability and sustainability of this first generation biorefinery.

Thermally-dried immobilized kefir on casein as starter culture in dried whey cheese production.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the use of thermally-dried immobilized kefir on casein as a starter culture for protein-enriched dried whey cheese. For comparison reasons, dried whey cheese with thermally-dried free kefir culture and with no starter culture were also produced. The effect of the nature of the culture, the ripening temperature and the ripening process on quality characteristics of the whey cheese was studied. The association of microbial groups during cheese maturation suggested repression of spoilage and protection from pathogens due to the thermally-dried kefir, as counts of coliforms, enterobacteria and staphylococci were significantly reduced in cheeses produced using thermally-dried kefir starter cultures. The effect of the starter culture on production of volatile compounds responsible for cheese flavor was also studied using the SPME GC/MS technique. Thermally-dried immobilized kefir starter culture resulted in an improved profile of aroma-related compounds. The preliminary sensory evaluation ascertained the soft, fine taste and the overall improved quality of cheese produced with the thermally-dried immobilized kefir. The potential of protein-based thermally-dried starter cultures in dairy products is finally highlighted and assessed.

Lactic acid production by mixed cultures of Kluyveromyces marxianus, Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus and Lactobacillus helveticus.

Lactic acid production using Kluyveromyces marxianus (IFO 288), Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus (ATCC 11842) and Lactobacillus helveticus (ATCC 15009) individually or as mixed culture on cheese whey in stirred or static fermentation conditions was evaluated. Lactic acid production, residual sugar and cell biomass were the main features examined. Increased lactic acid production was observed, when mixed cultures were used in comparison to individual ones. The highest lactic acid concentrations were achieved when K. marxianus yeast was combined with L. delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus, and when all the strains were used revealing possible synergistic effects between the yeast and the two lactic acid bacteria. The same synergistic effects were further observed and verified when the mixed cultures were applied in sourdough fermentations, proving that the above microbiological system could be applied in the food fermentations where high lactic acid production is sought.

Whey-cheese production using freeze-dried kefir culture as a starter.

AIMS: The aim of the present study was to evaluate the use of a freeze-dried kefir culture in the production of a novel type of whey-cheese similar to traditional Greek Myzithra-cheese, to achieve improvement of the quality characteristics of the final product and the extension of shelf-life. METHODS AND RESULTS: The use of kefir culture as a starter led to increased lactic acid concentrations and decreased pH values in the final product compared with whey-cheese without starter culture. The effect of the starter culture on production of aroma-related compounds responsible for cheese flavour was also studied using the solid phase microextraction gas chromatography/mass spectrometry technique. Spoilage in unsalted kefir-whey-cheese was observed on the thirteenth and the twentieth day of preservation at 10 and 5 degrees C, respectively, while the corresponding times for unsalted whey-cheese preservation were 11 and 14 days. CONCLUSIONS: The cheeses produced were characterized as high-quality products during the preliminary sensory evaluation. An indication of increased preservation time was attributed to the freeze-dried kefir culture, which also seemed to suppress growth of pathogens. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The results suggested the use of kefir culture as a means to extend the shelf-life of dairy products with reduced or no salt content.

An economic evaluation of freeze-dried kefir starter culture production using whey.

An economic study is presented in which industrial-scale production of freeze-dried kefir starter culture is discussed based on results on a laboratory scale. Industrial scale-up was based on a 3-step process using 3 bioreactors of 100, 3,000, and 30,000 L for 300 kg of freeze-dried culture/d of plant capacity. The major cost component of the total investment was the freeze-drying machinery, which consisted of 57% of the total investment. Production cost was reduced from 15.4 euros/kg ($18.5/kg) to 2.9 euros/kg ($3.5/kg) when the production capacity was increased from 30 to 900 kg/d. An economic analysis revealed a 3.5-fold increase in production cost compared with the corresponding production cost of the wet product, with an added value of up to 10.8 x 10(9) euros ($13.0 x 10(9)) within the European Union.

Cereal-based biorefinery development: integrated enzyme production for cereal flour hydrolysis.

Restructuring the traditional fermentation industry into viable biorefineries for the production of fuels, chemicals and plastics is essential in order to replace (petro)chemical processing. This work presents engineering aspects of Aspergillus awamori submerged fermentation for on-site production of an enzymatic consortium that contains glucoamylase, protease and phosphatase. The crude broth filtrate was used for the production of wheat flour hydrolysates. Improvements on traditional starch hydrolysis carried out in two stages (liquefaction and saccharification) were attempted through integration of unit operations and reduction of processing temperature and reaction duration. An initial increase of temperature to 68 degrees C and a subsequent decrease to 60 degrees C for the rest of the enzymatic hydrolysis resulted in a starch to glucose conversion yield of 94 and 92% when a wheat flour concentration and commercial starch concentration of 225 g L(-1) was used, respectively. The use of crude broth filtrates resulted in the simultaneous hydrolysis of wheat protein and phytic acid, as was indicated by the increase in free amino nitrogen and phosphorus concentration, respectively.

Use of Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells immobilized on orange peel as biocatalyst for alcoholic fermentation.

A biocatalyst was prepared by immobilizing a commercial Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain (baker's yeast) on orange peel pieces for use in alcoholic fermentation and for fermented food applications. Cell immobilization was shown by electron microscopy and by the efficiency of the immobilized biocatalyst for alcoholic fermentation of various carbohydrate substrates (glucose, molasses, raisin extracts) and at various temperatures (30-15 degrees C). Fermentation times in all cases were low (5-15 h) and ethanol productivities were high (av. 150.6 g/ld) showing good operational stability of the biocatalyst and suitability for commercial applications. Reasonable amounts of volatile by-products were produced at all the temperatures studied, revealing potential application of the proposed biocatalyst in fermented food applications, to improve productivities and quality.

Evaluation of freeze-dried kefir coculture as starter in feta-type cheese production.

The use of freeze-dried kefir coculture as a starter in the production of feta-type cheese was investigated. Maturation of the produced cheese at 4 degrees C was monitored for up to 70 days, and the effects of the starter culture, the salting method, and the ripening process on quality characteristics were studied. The use of kefir coculture as a starter led to increased lactic acid concentrations and decreased pH values in the final product associated with significantly higher conversion rates compared to salted rennet cheese. Determination of bacterial diversity at the end of the ripening process in salted kefir and rennet cheeses by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis technology, based on both DNA and RNA analyses, suggested a potential species-specific inhibition of members of the genera Staphylococcus and Psychrobacter by kefir coculture. The main active microbial associations in salted kefir cheese appeared to be members of the genera Pseudomonas and Lactococcus, while in salted rennet cheese, Oxalobacteraceae, Janthinobacterium, Psychrobacter, and Pseudomonas species were noted. The effect of the starter culture on the production of aroma-related compounds responsible for cheese flavor was also studied by the solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry technique. Kefir coculture also appeared to extend the shelf life of unsalted cheese. Spoilage of kefir cheese was observed on the 9th and 20th days of preservation at 10 and 5 degrees C, respectively, while spoilage in the corresponding rennet cheese was detected on the 7th and 16th days. Microbial counts during preservation of both types of unsalted cheese increased steadily and reached similar levels, with the exception of staphylococci, which were significantly lower in unsalted kefir cheese. All types of cheese produced with kefir as a starter were approved and accepted by the panel during the preliminary sensory evaluation compared to commercial feta-type cheese.

Kefir yeast technology: scale-up in SCP production using milk whey.

A three-step process to scale-up kefir biomass production at a semi-industrial scale employing whey is reported. Aerobic fermentations were initially performed at laboratory scales, in 1.5- and 4-L bioreactors, yielding 79 g/L final kefir biomass (0.89 g/g of lactose utilized), in 7 h of fermentation time. The use of whey as carbon source even in solid cultures led to the formation of a granular biomass. These results encouraged scale-up at a semi-industrial-scale pilot plant employing 100- and 3,000-L bioreactors, leading to the development of a process for granular kefir biomass production. The results validated the laboratory-scale experiments and the avoidance of centrifugal separators due to granular biomass formation. Pilot-plant operations showed kefir to be highly resistant to contamination under actual industrial conditions and no serious problems in handling of raw materials and equipment were observed. Economic analysis showed a 20% higher cost of the market price of products, with added value of up to 15.9 x 10(9) within the European Union.

Restructuring upstream bioprocessing: technological and economical aspects for production of a generic microbial feedstock from wheat.

Restructuring and optimization of the conventional fermentation industry for fuel and chemical production is necessary to replace petrochemical production routes. Guided by this concept, a novel biorefinery process has been developed as an alternative to conventional upstream processing routes, leading to the production of a generic fermentation feedstock from wheat. The robustness of Aspergillus awamori as enzyme producer is exploited in a continuous fungal fermentation on whole wheat flour. Vital gluten is extracted as an added-value byproduct by the conventional Martin process from a fraction of the overall wheat used. Enzymatic hydrolysis of gluten-free flour by the enzyme complex produced by A. awamori during fermentation produces a liquid stream rich in glucose (320 g/L). Autolysis of fungal cells produces a micronutrient-rich solution similar to yeast extract (1.6 g/L nitrogen, 0.5 g/L phosphorus). The case-specific combination of these two liquid streams can provide a nutrient-complete fermentation medium for a spectrum of microbial bioconversions for the production of such chemicals as organic acids, amino acids, bioethanol, glycerol, solvents, and microbial biodegradable plastics. Preliminary economic analysis has shown that the operating cost required to produce the feedstock is dependent on the plant capacity, cereal market price, presence and market value of added-value byproducts, labor costs, and mode of processing (batch or continuous). Integration of this process in an existing fermentation plant could lead to the production of a generic feedstock at an operating cost lower than the market price of glucose syrup (90% to 99% glucose) in the EU, provided that the plant capacity exceeds 410 m(3)/day. Further process improvements are also suggested.

High-temperature wine making using the thermotolerant yeast strain Kluyveromyces marxianus IMB3.

Kluyveromyces marxianus IMB3 yeast cells were immobilized on delignified cellulosic material, apple, and quince separately. Both immobilized and free cells were used in high-temperature wine making, and their fermented grape must contained 3 to 4% alcohol. Semisweet wines were produced by the addition of potable alcohol to the fermented must. Preliminary sensory evaluation of the produced semisweet wines showed good flavor and aroma. The final product contained extremely low levels of higher and amyl alcohols while ethyl acetate was at levels usually present in wines. The ferment produced may be blended with other products to improve their quality.

Grape and apple wines volatile fermentation products and possible relation to spoilage.

The main volatile by-products of the alcoholic fermentation of grape wine, cider and apple pulp wine were investigated to determine if any correlated with spoilage resistance in the latter two. Spoilage was visually detected after seven days in low-alcohol grape wine in comparison to 11 and 16 days in cider and apple pulp wine, respectively. Acetaldehyde, ethyl acetate, methanol, propanol, isobutanol and amyl alcohols were the main fermentation by-products detected in all three wines. There were highest concentrations of acetaldehyde, ethyl acetate, methanol and propanol in grape wine and, therefore, these by-products could not be implicated in spoilage resistance in apple wines. Increased concentrations of isobutanol and amyl alcohols, however, in cider and apple pulp wine in comparison to grape wine might have been the reason for spoilage resistance in the apple wines.

Effect of freeze-dried immobilized cells on delignified cellulosic material in low-temperature and ambient-temperature wine making.

In this article, we report on wine making by freeze-dried immobilized cells on delignified cellulosic material for ambient and low temperatures. Biocatalyst supported by freeze-dried delignified cellulosic (FDC) material recovered after the first repeated-batch fermentations the fermentation efficiency and startup, which become about equal to those of biocatalyst supported by wet delignified cellulosic material. The FDC biocatalyst was suitable for wine making at low temperatures (5-15 degrees C), and produced wine of 12% alcoholic degree, with the main volatiles contained in the wine and reduced by a decrease in temperature. The fermentation efficiency was not affected by total acidity of must, while an increase in initial Be density improved percentages of higher alcohols and ethyl acetate. The quality of the wine was validated by a preliminary taste test to be in the range of acceptable to excellent.